tf- 


LI  13R  ARY 

Of  THE 

DIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIRT    OK 


Received 
A  ccessions  No.  <?<?_  ^5^/_ . .       Shelf  No. 


DEDICATED 
To  the  Honest  People  of  the  Unite/I  Suites. 


SAFE-GUIDE, 


AFICHITECT 


Lours 

-i>\    A:    I'l  KKKOI  .     I 

1879 


-b 


I'.ntered  affording  to  Ad  of  Congress,   in  Hit    vcar  /A'^V, 

3<*>^ 

By  CHARLIE  MARCOTT1-:. 

In   the   Office  of  Hie  Librarian  of  Congress  at    \\'(tsJiinglon. 


INDORSED. 


We.  the  undersigned,  do  hereby  indorse  tlie  " BUILDING 
SAFE-GUIDE"  x>f*  Charles  Marcotte.  Architect.  In  our 
opinion,  the  Xew  System  of  Transacting  the  Building  Busi- 
ness contained  therein,  is  the  only  correct  and  reliable 

way  for  all  parties  concerned  in  such  business  and  should 
be  carried  out  into  practice. 


JOHN  B.  C.  LUCAS. 
ROBERT  J." LUCAS. 
J.  II.  SHEETS. 
('HAS.  L.  HUNT. 
('HAS.  p.  CHOUTEAU. 
GEORGE  I  JAIN. 

W3I.  H.  SCUDDEK, 
Til  OS.  KiCHESON. 

THEODORE  PA  PIN. 
MILES  SELLS, 
WAL  J.  LEMP, 
Jos.  BOGY. 
SAM.  CUPPLES. 

W.   PATIM(1K, 

M.  A.  WOLFF  x-  Co., 
P.  YORK. 
IT.  S.  PLATT, 

0.  A.  &  .1.  C.  (into  &  Co.. 
CARROLL  &  POAVELL. 
IVUHX. 


HENRY  SHAW, 
JOHN  K  (Jnio. 
JOHN  C.  H.  1).  BLOCK, 
Jos.  GARNEAU, 
DANIEL  CAJLIN. 
!•].  ().  STANARD, 
GEO.  T.  CRAM. 
HENRY  T.  SIMON. 
LEON  BOUCHER. 
0.  T.  AruiN. 

Jos.  i>.  LUCAS, 
WM.  LUCAS, 
THEOPHILE  PAPIN, 
BOOTH,  BARADA  &•  C<  •.. 
GRETHER  &  BCECK. 
E.  G.  OBEAR. 
I 'RANK  CARTER, 
1 ).  CRA\VFORI 
ES  1).  Li 
H.  CLAY  SE> 


i  u  it, 

HD, 


I  think  this  work  a  most  valuable  --uid 
templating  building. 


owners  con- 


SILAS  BENT. 


IV  INDORSEES. 


ARCHITECTS. 

BARNETT  &  TAYLOR S.  E.  cor.  5th  &  Olive  streets. 

FRANCIS  I).  LEE. Third  National  Bank  .Building. 

HENRY  G.  ISAACS Cor.  Oth  &  Locust  streets. 

THOS.  J.  FURLONG S.  E.  cor.  5th  &  Olive  streets. 

J.  H.  McXAMARA 322  N.  Third  street. 

HENRY  R   SWITZER S,  W.  eor.  5th  &  Olive  streets. 

JOHN  P.  MITCHELL 210  N.  Third  street. 

Ki  RCHNER  &  Co 323  N.  Third  street. 

FRANK  A.  RENIOK S.  W.  eor.  5th  &  Olive  streets. 

J.  H.  MAURICE 11 1  N.  7th  street. 

P.  F.  MEAGHER.  .  ..210  N.  8th  street. 


ARTISTS,  ETC. 

E.  S.  MIRAGOLI  &  Co.,  Fresco  Painting' 014^  Olive  st. 

HENRY  M  ARQUARDT,  Sculptor 100  S.  Eighth  st. 

CHAS.  HEISLER,  Electric  Engineer,  Contractor 
and  Manufacturer  of  Electric  House  and 
Hotel  Dells  and  Annunciators,  Speaking 
Tubes,  Burglar  Alarms,  etc 2221  Lucas  Avenue. 

BUILDERS  AND  MECHANICS. 

BUILDERS. 

J.  K.  LENT  &  SON \ 417  Olive  street. 

B.  WEBER  &  Co.  (B.  Weber  and  Henry 

Voneschen) «Slfi  Morgan  street. 

PETER  DICKINSON  . .  109  N.  7th  street. 

Mi LBURN  &  IviCH IL Singer  lUiilding 

RUDF,  &  LUKE.    .  BpOl  S.  W.  cor.  4th  &  Market  sts. 

\V.  W.  POLK.  F. 313  X.  llth  street. 

,Ios.  (TUEDR.Y.       .  Praii-ie-  Avenue,  near  St.  Louis  Avenue. 

CHRISTOPHER  Cr-i AIRMAN 1 125  N.  Oth  street. 

X.  L.  WICKWIRK.  ....  .312  X.  Oth  street. 


INDORSEES 


BUILDERS— 


BARTHOLOMEW   CARLEY 

SAMUEL  M  ARSDEN 007  Clay  Avenue. 

FRANCISCO  &  HOFFMAN GOO  Market  street. 

JOSEPH  SHUSTER 2040  Frankliii  Avenue. 

J.  THOS.  JAMES,  Mechanician  and  Super- 
intendent .\  . '. P.  O.  Box,  275:;. 

STONE  MASONS. 

JAMES  BLACK .X.  \V.  cor.  Oth  &  Locust  streets. 

WM.  McCuLLY 2020  Wash  street. 

DANIEL  CAVANAGH 1713  Webster  Avenue. 

,\  ACOH  KEMPF 1917  Arsenal  street. 

FRANK  FEHLIG 2017  &  2019  Wash  street. 

CONTRACTORS  IX  CUT  STONE. 

-I.v< or,  PICKEL  «S:  linos 1:>)7-1.')47  X.  llth  street. 

WILLIAM  VEITCI-I 

KD.  J.  STAMM Missouri  Avenue  and  Hickory  street. 

BRICKLAYERS. 

MrlHnDE  &  JULIAN S.  W.  cor.  sth  &  Olive  sti 

W.  T.  &  J.  BARKON S.  W.  cor.  Sth  &  Olive  streets. 

DANIEL  SHINE 501  X".  llth  street. 

J.  S.  DOYLE,  Builder  and  General  Jobber  —  500  X.  7th  st. 


PLASTERERS. 

ADAMS  &  BRO o741  BMB^A venue. 

WM.  BROMWICH Grand  &  M<»  unes. 

.IOHN  FITZGERALD o2.'51  Chestnut  street. 

JOHN  JOHNSON -IB    . . 2i»19  3Iarket  street. 

F.  TIEFENBRTNN  \'  SON.  Decorative  Plas- 
terers. .  H»7  S.  14th  street. 


VI  TNDORSERS. 

IKON  WORKS. 

McMuRRAY,  SMITH  &  JUDGE..  .Cor.  10th  &  Chestnut  sis. 
CHRISTOPHER,  SIMPSON  &  Co..  .Cor.  Oth  &  Park  Avenue. 

METAL  ROOFING,  GUTTERING  AND  SPOUTING. 

A.  C.  DUNLEVY 515  N.  Levee  &  520  Commercial  st. 

COCHRAN  &  KAMMERER 815  N.  Oth  st. 

SLATERS. 

,L  L.  &  A.  HULL 103  S.  llth  st. 

GRAVEL  AND  COMPOSITION  ROOFERS. 

SAM'L  1).  WARREN  &  Co N.  E.  eor.  5th  &  Olive  sis. 

JOHN  M.  SELLERS S.  E.  cor.  4th  &  Market  sts. 

MANUFACTURERS  OF  DOORS,  SASH  AND  BLINDS, 

AND  DEALERS  IN  LUMBER. 
PHILIBERT  &  JOHANNING 1502-1518  Market  street. 

MARBLE  WORKS,  MANTELS  AND  GRATES. 

PICKEL  MARBLE  Co 1851  Broadway. 

BRIGHT  &  BUTTERFIELD 2100  N.  9th  st.  cor.  Madison. 

Si,.  Louis  MANTEL  AND  GRATE  Co 24  S.  1 1th  street. 

KNUEPPEL  &  Co 1.119  Olive  street. 

B.  HORTON,  Dealer  in  Iron  Mantels,  etc. 701  &  708  N.  Main 

PLUMBERS,  GASFJTTERS,  ETC. 

(liiAHAM  vS:  PETERS 621    Locust  &  21)04  Olive  streets. 

( i  EO.  HENDERSON 1 1100  Olive  street, 

V EATS  &  C A.NTWELL ;j()7  N.  7th  street. 

M .  LYNCH ^. 1016  Olive  street. 

JOHN  TUMALTY.  .  .316  N.  8th  street. 


INDORSE  US.  VI 1 

PLUMBERS—  Continued. 

MAWDSLEY  &  MEPHAM 113  &  115  X.  6th  street, 

P.  ,1.  MOORE 23  S.  14th  street. 

Lons  \V.  WERNER  &  BRO 814  N.  6th  street. 

AUG.  J.  LONGENOTTI 1121  Olive  street. 

WM.  TAYLOR,  Mannfr.  of  Ranges  &  Furnaces, 

Tin,  Copper  and  Sheet  Iron  Works 1100  Olive  st. 

PAINTERS. 

MULLEN  &  HOPPIUS,  Painters  and  Agents 

for  Getchell's  Elastic  Eoof  Paint 114  Olive  street, 

FLESH  &  MOOK ">1G  X.  Third  street. 

YULE  &  Co. 1131  Olive  street, 

HINT  P.  WILSON 2  in  X.  Eighth  street, 

J.  II .  KRIPPEN 217  Chestnut  street. 

CHAS.  WIENTGK  ^  Co 820  X.  (>th  street, 

.!  AS.  S.  1  )< >\\ LING 2424  Morgan  street. 

DEALERS  IN  (1LASS. 

I-\  A.  DREW  &  Co ." 41!)  X.  6th  street, 

DREY  ^  KAHN r>12  ^  .114  St.  Charles  street. 

MOI'XD  CITY  WHITE  LEAD    AND  COLOR  WORKS. 

LEON  BOUCHER  &  Co 704  &  TIM;  X.  Second  street. 

I*.  WILLIAMS,  Agent,  Lemont,  Illinois  and 

Bedford,  Indiana,  Limestone.  .S.  W.  cor.  5th  &  Olive  sts. 
C.  W.  GOETZ  &  Co..  dealers  in  Cement. 

Plaster,  etc 1,509  &  l.">l  1  Market  street. 

ST.  Louis  TILING  \.\i>  COMPOSITION  STONE 

COMPANY M  XTIVH. 

ANDREAV  CARROLL,  lC\ca\ator. .  .L'«;tr>  LIM-JJS  Avenue. 


PREFACE. 


THE  main  objects  for  publishing  this  work  aim  entirely 
at  the  protection  of  all  Owners,  Agents,  Architects,  Me- 
chanics, and  others  who  are  concerned  in  the  Building 
Business ;  also  at  the  interests  of  all  Tax-payers  in  this 
country. 

The  work  is  divided  in  three  parts. 

The  objects  of  Part  First  are  the  following : 

1.  All  classes   of   society,  and  every  individual,  should 
know  that  rumors  prevail,  proofs  may  be  given,  and  it  is  a 
fact  known  by  a  large  portion  of  the  population  (if  not  by 
all )  that  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  are   or  may  be 
perpetrated    by  men     or   rings,    in    all    the    mechanical 
branches  connected  with  Buildings  ;  that  some  architects 
and    agents    may  receive    from     mechanics    illegitimate 
commissions     either    in    money    or    other     emoluments; 
that  some  architects  and  mechanics,  taking  contracts  for 
Buildings  on  their  own  plans  and  specifications,  may  also 
act  most  fraudulently. 

The  Building  Business  involves  such  large  sums  of 
money,  that  if  the  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  which 
may  be  perpetrated  in  buildings,  both  public  and  private, 
are  only  equal  to  rumors  and  allegations,  they  must  be 
enormous,  and  most  detrimental  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
people.  4 

2.  To  show,  according  to  the  most  reliable  informations, 
the  ways  and  means  which  are  used,  and  all  parts   of  the 
Building  where  the  evil  may  be  carried  on,   and  to  prove 
that  such    evil   must   be   attributed   to  the,   defects  of  the 
present  system  of  transacting  business. 


PREFACE.  x 

Part  Second  offers  a  system  of  transacting  the  Building 
Business,  so  true  and  reliable  for  the  safety  of  all  parties, 
as  to  defeat  at  the  outset  all  schemes  of  plunder  which 
may  be  intended  by  any  men  or  rings  as  regards  the  con- 
struction of  both  public  and  private  buildings. 

Part  Third  treats  briefly  of  building  materials,  and 
describes  fully  the  different  qualities  of  workmanship  in 
all  trades  connected  with  Building,  so  as  to  enable  anyone 
to  sec  that  every  contractor  executes  his  work  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  contract. 

Moreover,  it  exposes  in  the  most  lucid  manner,  and 
explains  in  detail  all  the  frauds  which  may  be  perpetrated 
in  the  work,  while  being  executed ;  suggesting  also  all  prac- 
tical ways  and  means  that  can  be  used  by  the  most  inexpe- 
rienced persons  to  detect  such  frauds  and  render  their 
perpetration  impossible,  not  only  in  new  buildings,  but  also 
in  alterations  and  repairs  of  old  ones. 

Notice. — This  treatise,  which  is  based  on  practice,  is 
accompanied  with  the  necessary  Plates,  and  Tables  showing 
the  size  and  strength  of  sheet  metals,  lead  and  iron  pipes, 
etc.,  as  manufactured  and  generally  used  in  buildings. 

I  have  not  spared  any  labor  or  expense  in  getting  all 
proper  informations  concerning  the  secrets  of  the  building 
trades. 

All  the  statements  and  figures  contained  therein  are 
warranted  to  be  correct,  as  a  great  many  mechanics  and 
others  are  ready  to  rise  and  swear  to  them  ;  therefore  do  I 
set  at  deliaiicc  all  adversaries  who  may  be  disposed  at  any 
time  to  make  serious  objections  to  this  work. 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


Truth  and  Justice  cannot  Offend  or  Affect  any 
one  but  the  "Guilty." 


No  honest  man  should  be  offended  at  the  exposure  of 
the  frauds  known  to  be  so  frequently  perpetrated  in  the 
construction  of  buildings,  or  be  opposed  to  the  New  System 
of  transacting  the  Building  Business,  which  is  acknowledged 
by  men  of  great  experience  as  the  only  proper  and  possible1 
way  to  keep  pace  with  the  dishonest  exertions  of  men  or 
rings,  and  defeat,  in  all  cases,  their  intended  schemes  of 
plunder.  But  some  persons  who  raise  objections  to  the 
New  System  suggested,  tell  me:  "Let  the  owners  transact 
business  in  the  old  way,  and  employ  men  in  whom  they 
have  confidence ! "  My  answer  to  this  is  very  plain ;  owners 
may  rely  on  their  architect  and  the  mechanics  for  the  con- 
struction of  their  buildings,  and  at  the  same  time  seen  re 
themselves  in  regard  to  the  financial  matters  concerning 
such  buildings,  as  when  they  transact  any  other  business 
with  other  classes  of  society.  Architects  and  mechanics 
who  may  have  heretofore  perpetrated  frauds,  had  the  full 
confidence  of  their  patrons  ;  for,  had  they  not  been  trusted 
too  far,  they  could  never  have  been  successful  in  their 
criminal  schemes ;  and  in  many  cases  the  more  confident 
were  the  Public  or  owners,  the  more  they  may  have  been 
defrauded. 

I  am  willing  to  admit  that  such  abuses  of  trust  may  be 
practiced  only  by  a  few  men  in  each  branch  of  the  building 
business,  but  such  is  the  difficulty  of  our  position  that  we 
cannot  always  tell  who  they  are,  even  if  we  know  them, 
and  of  course  being  unable  to  draw  the  "line'7  between  the 
"just1' and  the  "unjust17  among  men  enjoying  the  same 
privileges  of  freedom,  so  does  it  become  necessary  for 


PREFACE.  XI 

every  one,  without  exception,  to  follow  the  same  rules, 
however  strict  they  may  be,  in  order  to  succeed  in  estab- 
lishing universally  a  legitimate  business. 

There  are  some  architects,  mechanics,  and  old  gray-haired 
men  too,  having  an  established  reputation  for  a  great  many 
years,  with  a  large  custom,  and  known  in  their  respective 
locality  and  abroad,  as  practitioners  of  perfect  integrity, 
who,  far  from  being  humiliated  by  this  way  of  doing  business, 
are  willing  in  all  cases  to  give  owners  full  assurance  and 
proof  that  they  cannot  be  deceived  nor  defrauded  in  the 
construction  of  their  buildings. 

Moreover,  a  great  many  owners  have  already  adhered  to 
this  system  of  transacting  business  since  the  first  publica- 
tion of  the  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE,  and  of  course  every 
one  of  them  will  be  apt  to  adopt  it. 

When  an  architect  is  intrusted  with  the  construction  of 
a  building,  he  should  not  expect  to  have  an  unbounded 
control  of  the  financial  matters  concerning  the  work 
Honest  architects  have  so  much  to  do  in  attending  to  their 
own  business  that  they  can  be  well  excused  in  leaving 
owners  to  take  care  of  their  own  money  affairs.  All  they 
ask  is  a  fair  compensation  for  their  services. 

Appearances  justify  suspicion,  and  when  large  sums  of 
money  are  at  stake,  suspicion  becomes  a  just  ground  of 
inquiry. 

Criminal  cases  have  been  sometimes  instituted  against 
architects  and  mechanics,  who  were  perhaps  innocent ;  in 
tli esc  cases  neglect  or  carelessness  may  have  been  the  only 
cause  of  their  misfortunes.  Had  they  transacted  their 
business  according  to  this  system,  being  thereby  relieved 
from  all  suspicions,  they  would  never  have  gone  through 
such  humiliating  trials,  to  say  the  least,  nor  would  they 
have  incurred  public  censure  or  condemnation. 

It  is  reported  from  various  sources  that  some  parties  are 
strongly  opposed  to  this  work,  and  in  their  dissatisfaction, 
do  not  feel  very  friendly  towards  me  for  having  divulged 


Xll  BUILDING   SAFE-GUIDE. 

"frauds"  called  by  them  the  "secrets"  of  the  Building 
Business.  I  am  not  at  all  surprised  at  this,  as  I  expected 
it  from  the  beginning.  I  may  fairly  say  that,  if  every  one 
be  naturally  disposed  to  approve  of  it,  there  would  be  no 
cause  for  this  publication,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  the 
idea  would  never  have  presented  itself  to  my  mind. 

Let  me  ask  our  adversaries  and  the  most  severe  censurers 
of  my  conduct,  to  rise  at  once  before  the  Public  and  express 
loudly  whether  in  their  opinion  the  old  system  of  transact- 
ing the  Building  Business  justifies  this  publication,  or 
whether  it  is  so  perfect  that  it  cannot  be  improved ;  for,  in 
the  first  case  they  would  give  a  fair  evidence  that  they  have 
been  unjust  in  their  transactions  of  the  past,  and  also  feel 
defeated  by  this  GUIDE,  in  some  future  schemes;  and  in 
the  latter  case  they  would  be  most  erroneous,  as  a  great 
many  can  testify  to  the  frauds  mentioned  in  this  work,  and 
no  one  denies  them.  Not  only  the  individuals,  but  the 
Press  also,  through  the  whole  country  have  acknowledged 
the  frauds  in  a  general  way  at  least.  Therefore  do  I  claim 
that  the  enemies  of  this  work  are  strongly  opposed  to 
the  interests  of  society  at  large. 

Again,  some  practitioners  have  asserted  that  the  New 
System  of  transacting  the  Building  Business  would  render 
the  architects  and  the  mechanics  the  "valets"  of  the 
owners ;  this  assertion  is  false,  and  every  reasonable  man 
can  see  that  it  will  not  only  be  beneficial  to  the  owners,  but 
will  also  protect  all  honest  and  competent  architects  and 
mechanics  against  others  who  may  be  dishonest  or  devoid 
of  all  the  necessary  abilities.  A  man  is  not  a  valet  when 
he  acts  so  as  to  relieve  himself  from  all  dangerous  sus- 
picions. He  is  a  free  man  who  is  always  ready  to  prove 
his  transactions  to  be  just. 

With  all  their  mean  dispositions,  it  is  very  natural  for 
them  to  make  such  objections  ;  but  these  attempts  can  only 
turn  as  arguments  against  such  practitioners,  who  show 
more  vanity  and  conceit  than  honor;  as  every  one  can  see 


PREFACE.  Xlll 

that  they  may  seek  a  subterfuge  to  act  in  darkness,  as  they 
did  heretofore,  and  may  thereby  relieve  themselves  from 
the  principal  obligations  and  duties  incumbent  upon  men. 

Some  of  those  who  may  have  made  such  assertions,  if 
they  think  deeply  on  the  subject,  should  be  very  grateful 
to  me  for  doing  them  the  honor  yet  of  being  elevated  from 
the  rank  of  "  hirelings  or  thieves,"  to  the  simple  position 
of  "  valets,"  for  they  are  well  known  among  certain  classes. 
A  few  of  them,  after  having  been  bought,  and  become  of 
course,  the  "  valets  "  of  those  who  had  been  placed  under 
them  were  sold  afterwards  by  men  of  their  own  ring,  who 
have  divulged  their  dishonest  transactions. 

When  neither  the  feelings  of  shame,  the  sense  of  honor, 
the  reproaches  of  conscience,  nor  the  fear  of  punishment, 
can  form  any  bar  to  the  criminal  designs  of  these  prac- 
titioners in  various  localities  of  the  country,  it  is  evident 
they  can  only  find  their  safety,  and  are  allowed  to  breathe 
the  air  of  liberty  through  the  unbounded  generosity  of  the 
people  ;  for,  had  it  depended  on  themselves  and  their  own 
ring,  they  might  have  been  implicated  long  ago. 

Owners  should  not  trust  too  hastily  appearances  or 
demonstrations  of  any  kind,  whatever  they  maybe;  for 
God  alone  knows  the  heart  of  every  man,  and  men  want 
proofs  from  men  besides  pretenses.  It  is  well  known  that 
hypocrites  are  scattered  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  that 
im posters  with  winning  ways  and  a  honey  tongue  are 
designing  constantly  under  a  mask.  They  have  no  char- 
acter, but  want  to  enjoy  a  good  reputation;  they  always 
want  to  be  trusted,  but  they  are  not  worthy  of  trust  in  any 
transactions.  In  their  opinion,  honesty  and  folly  or  stupidity 
are  synonymous  terms;  and  being  villains,  they  fancy  them- 
selves to  be  men  of  great  abilities,  because  they  excel  in 
the  art  of  deceiving  others. 

I  can  feel  proud  in  saying  that  since  the  first  publication 
of  this  work,  I  was  not  only  honored  by  forfeiting  the 
regard  of  our  adversaries,  but  I  had  also  the  good  will  and 


xiv  BUIDING    SAFE-GUIDE. 

support  of  a,  great  many  men  of  position  and  character,  to 
whom  I  am  very  much  indebted  for  the  success  already 
attained  in  the  course  I  am  pursuing,  and  whose  esteem 
and  consideration  I  hope  to  possess,  and  shall  endeavor  to 
deserve  until  the  last  moment  of  my  life. 

Notice. — All  architects,  builders  and  mechanics  having 
their  names  connected  with  this  work  are  willing  to  agree 
and  bind  themselves  to  transact  business  with  owners 
according  to  the  system  contained  therein.  Some  others 
who  have  not  signed  this  GUIDE  have  declared  to  be  in 
favor  of  it. 

Oil  MILES  MARCOTTE,  ARCHITECT, 

Author. 


PART  FIRST. 

PAGE. 

(leneral    Kxposnre  of    Frauds,  and  Defects  in   the 

present  system  of  transacting  the  Building  Business.  1 

PART  SECOND. 

The  True  system  of  transacting  the  Building  Business.  14 

The  New  System  of  transacting  the  Building  Business 

Compared  with  the  Old 21 

Synopsis  of  the  New  System 21* 

The  Reciprocal  Duties  of  Owners  and  Architects.  ...  1>4 

Rules  of  Competition  for  Architects _!."> 

PART  THIRD. 

Treatise  on  Materials  and  Workmanship 1*7 

(Iranite,  Stone,  Marble 2S 

Limes.  Cements,  Mortars,  Concrete,  etc .31 

Foundations 3S 

Stone  Masonry 41 

Brick  and  Bricklaying.  Tiling,  etc ."»! 

Plastering .">S 

Wood,  Timber,  etc G5 

Lumber 70 

( 'arpenter's  and  Joiner's  Work 71 

Iron It . .  76 

Copper X.") 

Xinc X7 

( lal vanixed  Iron 88 

Tin 90 

Lead  and  Plumbing  Work ..                          92 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

Slate  Roofs....  103 

Gravel  Composition  Roofing. . .  .  107 

Shingle  Roofs ...  108 

Paints,  etc -  -  108 

Painting 110 

Wood  Filler 1  Hi 

Test  of  Purity  of  White  Lead 11!) 

Glass 121 

Glazing 123 

Gilding 124 

Paper  Hanging 124 

Steam  Heating  and  Ventilating 125 

Mantels,  Grates  and  Hearths 120 

Electric  Bells,  Speaking  Tubes  and  Burglar  Alarms.. .  128 

Plates 129-131 

Notices  and  Notes 133 

Rules  of  Measuring  adopted  in  St.  Louis 134 

REMARK. — The  Plates  are   connected    with    Stone   and 
I > rick   Masonry. 


PART  FIRST. 


Owners,  Agent*.  Administrators,  Architects,  Builders,  Me- 
chanics.— Defects  in  the  Present  System  of  Transacting  the 
Building  Business.-*— How  Frauds  and  Schemes  of  Plunder 
can  be  Perpetrated,  with  Ways  and  Means,  According  to 
Rumors  and  Allegations  that  Proofs  can  be  Given  in  Many 
Cases. 


1.  Plans  may  be  drawn  out  at  first  for  a  larger  and 
more  complicated  building  than  that  intended  to  be  erected, 
and  the   specifications   may   be   written  for  better  work 
than  that  proposed  to  be  executed,  exaggerating  also  all 
details.     The  mechanics  who  bid  on  them  without  knowl- 
edge of  any  scheme,  may  be  defeated  in  their  estimates 
or   bids,  by  favored  mechanics  forming  a  ring  with  the 
architect,  and  who  have  made  their  own  bids  according  to 
some  other  plans  and  specifications  drawn  out  with  intent 
and  purpose.  ,  These  favorites  may  pay  such  architect  a 
certain  sum,  for  the  contract  of  the   work,  over  the  com- 
mission which  lie  is  already  getting  from  the  owner  for  his 
professional  services,  and,   of  course,  judging  from  the 
transaction,  the  owner  pays  both  of  the  commissions,  not 
knowing  the  fraud  perpetrated  on  him;  and  moreover,  he 
may  pay  the  mechanics  more  than  he  would  if  the  compe- 
tition had  been  just  and  fair. 

2.  The  mechanics  forming   a   ring   with  the   architect 
may  all  bid  on  the  same  plans  and  specifications,  but  some 
of  them  who  get  the  contracts  of  the  buildings,  may  be 
allowed   by   such  architect  to   deviate   from   such    plans 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

and  specifications,  and  furnish  inferior  materials  and  do 
inferior  work  in  all  parts  of  such  buildings.  The  architect 
may  divide  the  spoils  with  the  mechanics,  and  again  the 
owner  is  deceived  and  defrauded. 

3.  In  many  cases   the  bids  may  be   opened   by  some 
architects,  who  will  sometimes  change  them,  or  raise  the 
amount  of  the  lowest  bid,  still  keeping  it  a  few   dollars 
lower  than  the  next  one,  in  order  to  share  in  the  illegal 
gains.    It  is  reported  as  a  known  fact  that  bids  are  some- 
times opened  by  tricky  means,  and  in  such  a  careful  man- 
ner, that  the  same  envelopes  are  used  again  properly,  and 
after  being  sealed  over,  they  do  not  show  the  least  indica- 
tion of  having  been  so  manipulated,  and  of  course,   the 
owners,  to  whom  they  are  presented  by  such  practitioners, 
have  no  idea  of  having  been  already  so  defrauded. 

4.  In  other  cases  some  architects  may  unjustly  delay  in 
giving  mechanics  money-orders  due  them  for  materials  fur- 
nished or  work  done,  until  such  architects  are  offered  by 
such  mechanics  a  high  commission,  either  in  money  or  its 
equivalent. 

5.  Again,  some  architects,  in  order  to  secure  a  commis- 
sion on  a  contract,  may  induce  and  persuade  the  owners 
to  build,  on  promises  that  their  buildings  can  be  put  up 
and  entirely  completed  for  a  certain  sum,  and  before  the 
buildings  can  be  occupied,  the  owners  may  have  to  pay  a 
great  many  bills  for  extra  materials  and  work  indispensa- 
ble for  the  proper  execution  and  entire  completion  of  such 
buildings.     Then  these  materials  and  work,  which  may  at 
first  have  been  omitted  in  the  plans  and  specifications, 
with  the  intent  and  purpose  of  deceiving  the  owners,  are 
charged  at  exhorbitant  prices,  and  the   net  profits  are 
shared  between  such  architects  and  the  contractors. 

0.  Again,  some  architects  may  give  to  mechanics  money- 
orders  far  exceeding  the  cost  of  materials  furnished  and 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  3 

work  done ;  and  after  such  mechanics  have  been  paid  they 
may  abandon  their  work  before  it  is  completed,  or,  through 
negligence,  carelessness  or  wrong  intentions,  these  arch- 
itects may  not  take  the  necessary  precautions  to  find  out 
whether  every  party  having  anything  to  do  with  materials, 
and  work  done  for  the  contractors  of  the  buildings,  has 
been  paid,  or  is  wiHing  to  abandon  through  a  written  ac- 
knowledgment, all  claims  for  liens  on  such  buildings;  and 
the  owners  may  sometimes  have  to  pay  twice  for  a  large 
portion  of  the  work. 

Some  architect-builders,  architect-carpenters,  and  other 
mechanics  of  this  class,  may  perpetrate  frauds  and  schemes 
of  plunder,  such  as  stated  above,  through  various  ways 
and  means.  They  have  the  best  opportunity  to  do  so.  with 
larger  illegal  gains,  as  they  build  according  to  their  own 
plans  and  specifications,  and  have  no  one  to  superintend 
over  them. 

AGENTS   AND   ADMINISTRATORS   OF  ESTATES. 

Some  agents,  and  administrators  of  estates  who  are 
engaged  in  the  interests  of  widows  and  minors,  may  also 
be  involved  in  the  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  above 
stated,  through  the  same  ways  and  means,  and  share 
with  some  architects  and  mechanics  illegal  profits  on  a 
building;  or  they  may  receive  from  mechanics  commissions 
often  per  cent,  or  more,  on  bills  of  repairs  and  additions 
to  a  building,  over  the  legitimate  fees  which  they  receive 
from  the  owners. 

9.  All  the  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  may  not  only 
exist  in  one  or  two  branches  of  the  work,  but  also  in  all 
trades  connected  with  Building ;  they  may  affect,  not  only 
the  general  dimensions  of  the  buildings,  the  height  of 
stories,  thickness  of  walls,  general  design  and  all  details, 
but  also  the  quality  of  materials  and  workmanship  through- 
out: In  foundations,  stone  and  brick  work,  piers  and 


4  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

arches ;  marble  and  granite  work,  mortar  and  cement ; 
Carpenter's  and  Joiner's  work,  lumber,  sizes  of  joists,  and 
all  timbers,  style  and  sizes  of  finishings — such  as  arch- 
itraves, moldings,  cornices,  stairs  and  balustrades,  wain- 
scoting and  bases,  and  all  the  hardware ;  Plumbing,  gas- 
fitting  and  sewering ;  Plastering,  stucco  cornices  and  cen- 
ter pieces ;  Painting,  varnish  and  glass,  Roofing,  down- 
spouts and  gutters,  and  the  size  and  weight  of  metal ;  the 
various  kinds  and  qualities  of  all  iron  work  or  other 
metals:  the  different  sizes  of  iron  columns,  pillars,  pilas- 
ters, girders,  lintels,  and  more  principally  the  thickness  of 
metal,  which  generally  makes  the  greatest  difference  in 
the  cost  of  the  work  and  offers  the  best  chances  for  frauds, 
as  all  of  such  iron  or  other  metal  work  is  estimated  at  so 
much  a  pound.  Frauds  may  exist  also  in  side- walks,  pave- 
ments, boilers,  heating  apparatus,  elevators,  and  dumb- 
waiters, etc.,  etc. 

Stud  or  wooden  partitions  may  be  put  up  instead  of 
brick  walls.  Good  stone  may  be  replaced  by  stone  of  an 
inferior  quality ;  thickness  of  cut  stone  or  ashlar,  moldings 
and  ornaments  in  stone  work  may  be  reduced  considerably. 
Such  reductions,  both  in  design  and  sizes  of  cut  stoue, 
may  be  sometimes  enormous,  and  of  course  make  a  great 
difference  in  the  cost  of  the  work.  All  the  cut  stone 
trimmings,  or  parts  of  them,  as  specified  for  doors  and 
windows  in  brick  work  or  masonry,  may  be  omitted  in 
buildings.  Wooden  cornices  may  be  used  instead  of  cast 
iron,  or  galvanized  iron  ones ;  cast  iron,  or  galvanized  iron 
cornices,  instead  of  stone  ones;  gravel  roofing  instead  of 
tin  roofs ;  tin  roofs  instead  of  copper  ones  ;  tin  down-spouts 
and  gutters  for  copper  ones ;  second  quality  lumber,  in- 
stead of  first  quality,  and  third  quality  instead  of  second  ; 
a  cheaper  kind  of  wood  in  place  of  another — such  as  pine 
for  oak  and  walnut,  green  lumber  for  dry  lumber.  Thick 
doors,  sashes  and  blinds  may  be  replaced  by  thinner  ones ; 
high  wainscotings  in  rooms  by  low  bases  ;  costly  finishings 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  O 

by  common  ones;  hardware  of  an  inferior  quality  may  be 
substituted  for  that  specified  throughout ;  common  plas- 
tering- for  the  best  of  plastering;  stucco  cornices  and  cen- 
ter pieces  may  be  reduced  in  sizes,  style  of  moldings  and 
ornaments. 

Old  and  second-hand  materials  may  be  substituted  in 
place  of  new  materials  called  for  by  the  specifications, 
principally  in  plumbing,  sewering,  and  all  other  secret 
parts  of  a  building,  which  cannot  be  seen  after  the  work 
has  been  done;  the  size  and  strength  of  lead  and  iron  pipes, 
the  quality  of  water-closets  and  bath-tubs,  the  weight  of 
metals  such  as  lead,  galvanized  iron  or  copper,  the  size 
and  strength  of  iron  sinks — may  not  always  be  in  accor- 
dance with  the  specifications.  The  sewer  pipes  may  not 
always  be  of  the  right  size,  or  their  junctions  not  being 
well  cemented,  may  by  leakage  cause  a  settlement  in  the 
foundations  and  walls  above,  a  defect  which  may  be  seen 
in  front,  rear  and  side  walls  of  many  buildings.  There 
may  not  be  always  as  many  wash-bowls,  wash-stands  or 
sinks  put  in  a  building  as  indicated  in  the  plans  and  spec- 
ifications; paints  of  inferior  quality  may  be  used  instead  of 
pure  white  lead;  common  varnish  and  putty,  instead  of 
best  materials;  plain  work  for  graining;  two  coats  may  be 
put  on  in  place  of  three  or  four-coat  work ;  one  coat  of 
varnish  for  two  coats,  with  a  large  difference  in  the  total 
cost.  Glass  of  an  inferior  quality  may  be  sometimes  sub- 
stituted in  place  of  best  American  and  French  or  English 
polished  plate  glass,  as  called  for  by  the  specifications. 

The  upper  sash  of  a  window  may,  in  some  places,  be 
glazed  with  single  strength  glass  instead  of  double  glass 
like  the  lower  sash.  Cheap  mantels,  grates  and  hearths 
and  marble-work,  may  be  set  in  place  of  more  costly  arti- 
cles specified  and  contracted  for. 

It  is  also  reported  as  a  known  fact  that  commissions  of 
ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent,  are  paid  to  some  agents, 
architects,  and  to  some  builders  taking  contracts  on  their 


6  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

own  plans  and  specifications,  on  the  cost  of  mantels, 
grates,  and  hearths,  and  other  work,  such  as  monuments, 
and  fancy  iron  work,  etc.  In  these  cases,  as  in  others, 
mechanics  may  be  imposed  upon  with  claims  of  commis- 
sions by  such  architects,  agents  or  builders,  and  submit  to 
such  illegal  claims  to  retain  their  patronage  and  get  a 
speedy  settlement  of  their  contracts.  Commissions  of  one 
hundred  dollars  or  more  may  be  paid  to  some  architects, 
agents,  or  builders,  for  the  introduction  of  gas  machines 
in  country  houses ;  large  commissions  may  be  paid  for 
heating  apparatus  in  buildings,  for  patent  elevators  and 
dumb-waiters,  electric  bells,  any  patent  improvements  on 
locks,  water  closets,  sky-lights,  etc. 

It  is  asserted  that  foundations,  intended  to  be  built  of 
hammer-dressed  stone  work,  as  specified  and  estimated 
upon  by  many  masons,  may  be  constructed  in  ordinary 
rubble  masonry ;  also,  that  cut  limestone,  which  was  speci- 
fied to  be  set  on  its  natural  or  quarry  bed,  may  be  set  on 
edge,  with  an  enormous  difference  in  the  cost  of  materials 
and  workmanship  in  both  cases.  It  is  reported  that  the 
mechanics  who  have  been  defeated  in  the  competition,  are 
not  always  invited  to  bid  again  011  the  inferior  quality  of 
these  two  kinds  of  work,  which,  consequently,  may  be 
carried  out  contrarily  to  the  specifications  first  submitted 
to  competing  bidders. 

Lastly,  iron  nails  may  be  used  instead  of  copper  nails 
which  are  more  costly,  and  part  of  iron  anchors  retaining 
the  walls  to  floors  and  roofs,  and  iron  stirrups  for  strength- 
ening the  junctions  of  trimmers  and  trim  in  ing  joists  to  stair 
openings,  hatchways  and  others,  may  sometimes  be  left 
out  of  the  work,  after  having  been  specified  and  estimated 
upon. 

It  is  also  reported  that  very  high  commissions  are  offer- 
ed and  paid  to  some  parties,  for  the  introduction  of  in- 
ferior kinds  of  materials  in  preference  to  others  which 
have  had  an  established  reputation  for  years, 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  7 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  report  that 
some  kinds  of  common  stone  may  be  forced  in  the  market 
and  introduced  into  buildings  through  the  same  ways  and 
means  above  stated,  instead  of  the  sand-stone  or  other 
kind  of  stone  which  after  years  and  many  experiments  has 
proved  to  be  the  best  adapted,  even  for  the  most  impor- 
tant structures. 

Judging  from  the  above  catalogue,  which  shows  all  pos- 
sible chances  for  frauds  and  plunder,  from  the  bottom 
stones  of  the  foundations  to  the  last  nail,  it  can  easily  be 
seen  how  and  why  a  house  which  is  worth  seven  thousand 
dollars,  may  have  cost  eleven  thousand ;  another  house 
worth  eight  or  nine  thousand  dollars,  may  have  cost 
twelve  or  thirteen  thousand;  some  repairs  and  additions 
which  may  be  worth  twelve  thousand  dollars,  may  have 
cost  nineteen  or  twenty  thousand. 

It  is  very  natural  for  any  one  who  is  neither  an  archi- 
tect nor  a  mechanic  to  be  entirely  deceived  by  the  general 
appearance  of  any  building,  as  regards  its  legitimate  cost, 
or  to  commit  great  errors,  in  being  led  by  the  appearance 
of  the  general  design  and  external  details  of  two  buildings, 
when  one  is  compared  with  the  other,  to  judge  their  res- 
pective intrinsic  value. 

It  is  possible  that  two  buildings  of  the  same  dimensions 
may  be  built  by  the  same  contractor,  at  the  same  time,  and 
according  to  the  same  plans  and  specifications  throughout, 
and  differ  considerably  in  cost;  one  may  cost  twenty 
thousand  dollars,  and  the  other,  twenty-five  thousand  or 
more. 

Again :  Two  buildings  may  look  similar  in  all  their  parts 
to  the  eyes  of  the  owners  and  others,  as  regards  general 
design  and  details,  and  yet  differ  thoroughly  in  thickness 
of  walls,  dimensions  in  general,  quality  of  materials,  finish 
and  workmanship.  They  may  have  been  contracted  for  and 
erected  by  the  same  builder,  at  the  same  time,  according 
to  the  same  plans  and  specifications,  for  the  same  price, 


8  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

and  of  course,  through  such  differences  in  all  parts  and 
details  of  the  work,  which  may  not  be  perceptible  to  any 
one  but  the  builder  and  the  architect,  one  may  be  worth 
considerably  more  than  the  other. 

Again :  Two  iron  fronts  for  stores  of  equal  dimensions, 
cast  on  the  same  design  and  details  throughout,  contracted 
for  and  put  up  by  the  same  man,  and  at  the  same  time,  but 
for  different  prices  on  account  of  the  different  thicknesses 
of  metal  as  figured  in  the  specifications,  may  be  worth  only 
the  same  price,  because  the  same  thicknesses  of  metal  in 
all  parts  of  the  work  will  have  been  used  for  both. 

Consequently,  the  shrewdest  men,  and  those  who  have 
shown  the  greatest  ability  and  attained  the  best  success  in 
their  own  business,  may  be  deceived  and  defrauded  of 
large  sums  of  money  in  the  construction  of  their  buildings, 
owing  to  the  present  defective  system  of  transacting  busi- 
ness. 

The  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  are  reported  and 
known  by  a  great  many  to  be  perpetrated  principally  by 
some  parties  among  three  different  classes  of  practitioners, 
viz  : 

1.  Some  of  those  who  draw  out  plans  and  specifications, 
and  take  the  superintendency  of  buildings  at  very  low  and 
insignificant  prices,  make  their  money  in  having  recourse 
to  such  ways  and  means  of  corruption. 

2.  Another  class  of  men,  deprived  of  all  the  necessary 
talent,  knowledge,  and  professional  pride,  and  of  course 
raised  without  merit  and  dignity  to  the  rank  of  architects, 
through  the  influence  of  some  corrupt  men  or  rings,  only 
because  the  building  business   offers  them  an  immense 
field  of  speculation  and  plunder. 

3.  Some  other  practitioners  among  architects  and  me- 
chanics, who  draw  out  plans  and  specifications  as  means 
to  secure  the  contracts  of  buildings  without  the   superiu- 
tendency  of  any  one  over  them.     Of  course,  they  can  well 
afford  to  furnish   such  plans  and   specifications   without 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  9 

charge,  having  the  bright  prospect  of  making  large  sums 
out  of  such  contracts.  In  many  cases  the  extra  profits 
they  may  derive  from  all  branches  of  the  work,  and  the 
frauds  perpetrated,  may  be  known  to  be  sometimes 
enormous,  consequently,  the  owners,  unaware  from  the 
beginning,  of  the  intended  schemes  of  such  practitioners, 
and  feeling  sure  that  they  have  secured  cheap  plans  and 
specifications,  may  at  last  pay  for  them,  through  the  work 
on  their  buildings,  a  great  deal  more  than  regular  fees  of 
architects  would  be. 

Some  of  these  practitioners,  as  well  as  some  other  men 
practicing  exclusively  as  architects,  already  mentioned, 
have  not  followed  the  course  or  any  part  of  the  course  on 
architecture.  Like  all  other  men,  they  may  have 
vague  ideas  of  building,  and  of  course,  being  mechanics, 
whether  they  are  competent  or  not,  know  more  about  it 
than  others  who  never  were  engaged  in  any  branch  of  the 
building  business ;  but  unless  they  have  devoted  the  pro- 
per time  to  the  study  of  the  Art  and  acquired  the  necessary 
knowledge,  they  can  not  be  recognized  as  architects. 

Architecture  is  not  only  the  first  of  all  the  Fine  Arts  :  it 
is  also   a   Science.      As  an   Art  it  requires   talent    and 
originality  of  design ;  and  as  a   Science,  a  long  and  jud 
icious  study. 

Its  principal  objects  being  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the 
individuals  and  society,  the  wants  and  ornament  of  all 
countries,  there  is  no  other  profession,  no  other  branch  of 
business  which  possesses  a  larger  field  for  display  of  ideas, 
skill  and  general  knowledge  in  both  of  the  private  and 
public  improvements. 

Before  entering  the  career  of  Architecture,  the  student 
must  be  a  good  scholar,  show  a  natural  disposition  for  the 
art,  and  make  up  his  mind  to  devote  his  whole  time  to  its 
study. 

In  order  to  practice  the  Profession  with  success,  the 
Architect  must  design  well  and  execute  well ;  and  nobody 


10  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

could  ever  acquire  the  skill  of  designing,  if  he  is  not  well 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  drawing.  I  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  every  draftsman  can  be  an  architect;  but  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  no  man  can  be  an  architect,  who  is  not 
a  competent  draftsman.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  student 
to  learn  Architecture  in  the  school ;  he  should  also  devote 
a  few  years, — five  or  six  years  at  least, — in  a  good  archi- 
tect's office,  where  he  could  have  the  best  opportunity  of 
progressing  practically  as  well  as  theoretically. 

Proportion,  character,  unity  of  design,  and  purity  of  style 
must  constitute  the  main  qualities  of  any  building,  either 
public  or  private. 

The  study  of  the  Orders  from  the  classical  authors,  and 
the  modern  authors,  such  as  Palladio,  Serlio,  Vignola  and 
Michel-Angelo,  will  teach  him  the  rules  of  proportion  and 
purity  of  style,  even  for  buildings  which  are  not  adorned 
with  columns  or  pilasters. 

With  the  constant  practice  of  designing,  aided  by  the 
practical  work  of  the  office,  he  will  not  only  acquire  to  a 
perfection  the  skill  in  giving  character  and  keeping  unity 
in  his  designs,  but  will  also  become  acquainted  with  all 
the  wants  of  individuals  and  society,  and  will  combine 
economy  and  utility  with  taste  and  elegance. 

In  studying  other  modern  and  gothic  styles, — following 
the  progress  of  the  Art  in  the  large  cities,  he  will  improve 
his  own  originality  and  vary  his  designs. 

The  requirements  of  practice  render  it  necessary  for 
him  to  give  a  particular  attention  to  the  progress  of 
buildings  from  their  foundations  to  their  entire  completion ; 
acquire  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all  the  various  building 
materials,  and  the  mode  of  doing  the  work  in  all  branches 
connected  with  Building. 

A  sufficient  knowledge  of  Mathematics  will  enable  him 
to  study  the  principles  of  Construction,  understand  for- 
mulas, and  solve  problems  which  are  based  on  practical 
experiments,  and  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all 
the  mechanical  principles. 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  1 1 

Through  this  science,  he  can  calculate  the  strength  of 
materials ;  safely  direct  the  construction  of  foundations, 
walls,  piers,  arches  and  vaults,  roof  trusses,  girders  and 
floors ;  he  will  be  a  safe  constructionist. 

Everyone  should  be  convinced  of  this  important  truth, 
that  no  man,  whether  he  be  a  draftsman  or  a  mechanic, 
without  this  positive  knowledge  has  the  right  to  claim  a 
position  in  the  ranks  of  really  practical  men  engaged  in 
directing  the  construction  of  buildings.  The  safest  and 
most  important  structures  are  erected  through  this  science. 
Some  of  the  so-called  practical  men  who  are  deprived  of 
it,  after  many  years7  experience  in  their  own  trade  may  be 
sometimes  so  much  embarrassed  in  some  kinds  of  con- 
structions with  which  they  were  not  familiar,  that  with  all 
their  boasted  practical  knowledge  and  good  judgment, 
they  do  not  know  how  to  get  out  in  a  fair  manner  of  their 
difficulties,  which  are  puzzles  to  them.  Having  not  the 
sufficient  knowledge  of  mathematics  to  solve  the  problems 
required,  they  may  become  reckless,  and  either  make  the 
work  cost  too  much  by  using  an  unnecessary  quantity  of 
materials  and  labor,  from  fear  that  the  structure  may  not 
be  safe,  or.  for  economy,  they  may  not  give  to  their  con- 
struction the  necessary  strength,  and  consequently  cause 
the  ruin  of  a  building,  either  large  or  small. 

These  assertions  are  sustained  by  the  best  Architectural 
Schools  and  offices  of  Europe  and  of  the  United  States. 

As  the  philosopher  and  orator  express  their  ideas  either 
by  writing  or  by  speech,  so  does  the  architect  express  his 
own  principally  through  drawing  and  calculations.  Then, 
how  can  one  possess  much  skill  in  designing,  or  ever 
acquire  any  culture  of  taste,  who  is  not  a  draftsman,  or 
never  learned  fully  the  rudiments  of  the  art  ? 

Some  of  those  practitioners  carry  on  their  business  only 
through  the  assistance  and  brains  of  hired  architect- 
draftsmen  ;  and,  relying  entirely  on  them  to  draw  out  their 
plans,  they  are  never  seen  in  their  offices,  like  architects, 


12  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

making  any  designs  or  sketches  for  anything.  I  am  posi- 
tive in  saying,  that  some  of  these  so-called  practical  men 
can  not  even  understand  thoroughly  a  set  of  plans,  when 
completed.  As  to  the  superintendency  of  buildings,  they 
may  not  have  much  to  do,  because  the  builder  or  each  of 
the  sub-contractors,  as  the  case  may  be,  generally  directs 
his  own  work  in  such  cases ;  consequently,  some  of  these 
practitioners  may  not  deserve  much  credit  for  any  structures 
which  may  be  put  up  in  their  names.  Moreover,  the  hired 
draftsmen,  however  competent  architects  they  may  be, 
knowing  that  their  patrons  are  not  good  judges  in  fine  arts 
and  the  science  of  Construction,  and  having  no  reputation 
to  establish  through  such  practice,  may  be  most  indifferent 
and  not  give  the  design  and  the  plans  of  the  building,  all 
the  study  and  labor  required.  Therefore  the  owners  may 
not  always  secure  as  good  buildings  as  they  could  for  the 
same  amount  or  less  money,  if  they  had  at  first  engaged  a 
true  architect. 

In  all  the  countries  of  Europe  it  is  a  custom,  and  the 
same  custom  has  been  adopted  in  this  country  by  a  great 
many  owners  contemplating  building,  to  engage  at  first  an 
architect  and  afterwards  deal  with  mechanics,  knowing 
that  they  can  generally  secure  in  this  way  much  better 
plans,  and  lower  bids  also  from  the  competition  of  the 
several  mechanics  on  the  architect's  plans  and  specifica- 
tions, than  by  intrusting  one  party  with  both  the  plans  and 
the  entire  contact  of  the  work.  All  the  most  important 
buildings  and  a  great  many  private  ones,  either  cheap  or 
costly,  are  being  erected  under  the  supervision  of  true 
architects.  As  artists  and  men  of  practical  science,  having 
nothing  to  do  but  to  devote  their  whole  tT.me  to  the  study 
of  their  subject,  they  produce  the  best  effects  out  of  the 
Skillful  arrangement  of  all  parts  and  the  distribution  of 
materials,  and  construct  all  kinds  of  work  in  the  cheapest 
and  most  proper  manner. 

The  profession  of  an  architect  and  that  of  an  ordinary 
builder  are  two  distinct  branches  of  business ;  and  in  all 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  13 

the  most  civilized  countries  and  well  built  cities,  they  are 
kept  separate.  The  architect's  professional  duty  consists 
principally  in  designing,  making  plans,  detail  drawings  and 
writing  specifications  for  buildings ;  the  builder's  duty  is  to 
carry  out  into  effect  such  designs,  plans  and  specifica- 
tions. As  a  superintendent,  the  architect  sees  that  the 
builder  or  the  mechanic  furnishes  the  materials  and  ex- 
ecutes his  work  in  strict  accordance  with  the  contract. 

As  regards  men  practicing  either  as  general  builders,  or 
as  mechanics  in  their  respective  branches,  they  are  not  of 
course  all  equally  competent  or  upright.  Some  of  them 
will  do  the  most  inferior  kind  of  work,  and  commit  some 
of  the  frauds  mentioned  in  this  GUIDE,  by  deviating  from 
the  plans  and  specifications,  after  having  defeated  in 
competition  honest  and  good  reputed  mechanics  who  are 
ready  at  any  time  to  have  their  work  examined,  and  prove 
it  to  be  done  strictly  in  accordance  with  their  contract. 

Whereas,  it  is  evident  that  the  present  system  of  trans- 
acting the  Building  Business  is  so  defective  as  to  offer 
to  corrupt  men,  or  rings,  all  possible  chances  for  per- 
petrating the  frauds  and  schemes  of  plunder  stated  above ; 
therefore  a  radical  reform  is  an  absolute  necessity ;  and  it 
becomes  most  urgent  that  a  better  and  more  reliable 
system,  which  could  check  in  all  cases  such  frauds  and 
schemes  of  plunder,  intended  by  such  corrupt  men  or 
rings,  in  assuring  the  owners  that  they  can  not  be  deceived 
nor  defrauded  by  any  ways  or  means,  should  be  establish- 
ed at  once ;  and  moreover,  for  the  interests  and  prosperity 
of  the  profession  of  architecture  and  all  the  mechanical 
branches  connected  with  buildings,  and  the  protection  of 
society  in  general,  all  honest  architects,  mechanics,  agents 
and  administrators  should  cooperate  with  the  owners  in 
carrying  out  this  New  System  in  the  strictest  manner. 


PART  SECOND. 


THE   TEUE    SYSTEM    OF   TEANSACTING  THE 
BUILDING  BUSINESS. 


The  most  practical  and  reliable  system  of  transacting 
the  building  business  should  be  the  following,  with  ways 
and  means: 

1.  The  Owners  should  Employ  Architects  to  draw 
the  plans  and  specifications   of  their  buildings;   and  the 
mechanics  having  the  contract  to  furnish  the  materials  and 
do  the  work,  should  be  placed  under  the  superintendency 
of  the  architects. 

2.  Before  the  Mechanics  can  commence  Estimat- 
ing on  the  cost  of  a  building,  or  any  part  of  the  work,  in  all 
cases  and  without  exceptions,  the  owners  should  get  in 
their  possession  exact  copies  of  all  the  specifications.   For 
costly  buildings,  they   should  have  also   copies  or  trac- 
ings  of   all  the  plans,  elevations  and   sections,  and  such 
copies   or  tracings   should   be   figured  like  the    original 
drawings.    Both   sets   of   the  specifications,  after   being 
compared,  and  also  the   plan   of  the  ground  floor  of  the 
building  (if  not  all  the  plans)  should  be    signed  by  the 
owner,  the  architect,  and  all  the  competing  mechanics. 

3.  Forms  of  Plans  and  Specifications.— 

For  all  classes  of  buildings,  the  plans,  sections,  and 
elevations,  besides  being  drawn  to  a  scale,  should  be 
thoroughly  figured.  All  the  general  dimensions,  such  as 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  15 

lengths,  depths,  widths,  projections,  heights  of  founda- 
tions, heights  of  all  stories,  cellars,  attics  or  garrets, 
and  general  heights  of  buildings  outside ;  the  thickness  of 
all  stone  and  brick  walls  in  all  stories  and  cellars ;  the 
parapet  walls  over  roofs ;  thickness  of  brick  backing 
behind  all  stonework  or  ashlar,  and  filling  within  the 
depths  of  cornices,  sizes  of  piers,  arches,  and  all  timbers 
should  not  only  be  figured  on  the  drawings,  but  also  in 
the  specifications,  and  with  great  accuracy.  All  the 
various  materials,  and  the  workmanship  for  all  classes  of 
the  work,  should  be  fully  described  with  particular  care. 

All  parts  and  details  of  the  cut  stone  work,  granite  or 
marble  work:  such  as  bases,  die-courses,  sills,  columns, 
pilasters,  entablatures  and  cornices,  architraves  and  jambs, 
slabs,  copings,  side  walks,  buttresses,  etc.,  should  be 
figured  in  the  specifications ;  the  number  of  all  the  rooms 
in  each  story  of  the  building ;  the  number  of  doors,  win- 
dows, blinds,  with  sizes  and  thicknesses ;  size  of  glass ; 
different  sizes  and  styles  of  all  finishings  in  the  joiner's 
work ;  sizes  of  stucco  cornices  and  center  pieces ;  number 
of  iron  columns,  pilasters,  girders  and  lintels,  with  their 
various  sizes  and  thicknesses  of  metal ;  strength  and  size 
of  all  iron  or  lead  pipes,  quality  of  hardware  throughout 
and  the  number  of  washstands,  bowls,  bath-tubs  and 
water-closets,  etc.,  should  be  mentioned  in  the  specifica- 
tions without  fail. 

In  all  cases  where  the  owners  do  not  secure  the  copies 
of  all  the  plans,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  speci- 
fications should  be  figured  in  the  above  manner,  in  order 
to  check  all  possibilities  of  perpetrating  frauds,  in  chang- 
ing the  plans,  reducing  the  dimensions  and  sizes  in  all 
parts,  and  the  number  of  iron  columns,  water-closets, 
wash-stands,  bowls,  etc.,  etc. 

The  specifications  should  be  written  in  legal  form? 
without  blank  spaces  and  erased  words,  and  no  writing 
should  be  allowed  between  lines.  Should  any  changes, 


16  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

additions  or  reductions  be  made  in  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations while  the  mechanics  are  making  their  estimates; 
they  should  be  mentioned  on  special  sheets  added  to  the 
specifications,  and  signed  by  all  the  competitors  after  all 
such  estimates  have  been  made.  If  the  changes  made  on 
the  plans  affect  the  design  or  part  of  the  design  very  re- 
terially,  then  the  bidders  should  stop  estimating,  and  re- 
sume only  after  all  of  such  changes  have  been  made  on  the 
drawings  and  added  to  the  specifications. 

These  precautionary  measures  will  assure  the  owners 
and  all  the  bidders  that  the  same  plans  and  specifications 
which  are  used  for  estimates  will  also  be  carried  out  to 
their  exact  and  full  extent,  (unless  the  owners  are  willing 
to  have  such  plans  and  specifications  changed,)  and  all 
parties  will  be  satisfied  that  the  competition  has  been  fair 
and  just. 

4.  Buildings  of  Great  Importance.— 

For  public  buildings  or  private  ones  of  an  elaborate 
design,  the  principal  detail  drawings  should  be  gotten  out 
before  mechanics  can  commence  estimating,  and  should 
also  be  made,  like  the  general  plans  and  specifications, 
part  of  the  basis  of  contract.  Such  plans  and  specifica- 
tions should  be  drawn  out  and  figured  like  others,  as  de- 
scribed above. 

5.  To  Avoid  all  Possible  Extra  Work. 

In  all  cases  the  drawings  and  specifications  should  be  so 
complete  and  explicit,  that  after  the  bids  are  received,  the 
owners  could  safely  rely  on  the  lowest  bids  as  the  exact 
and  entire  cost  of  their  buildings,  when  completed;  there- 
fore, great  care  should  be  taken  that  everything  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  execution  and  entire  completion  of 
the  work  should  be  included  in  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions forming  the  basis  of  contract. 


SUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  17 

6.  The  Owners  Should  Always  Receive  the  Bids. 

All  the  bids  for  all  parts  of  the  work  should  be  address- 
ed directly  and  delivered  to  owners. 

7.  Bids  for  Public  Works. 

When  bids  are  asked  for  public  works  of  any  kind,  there 
ought  to  be  a  certain  day  appointed  to  receive  them.  All 
the  competitors  should  have  the  privilege  of  being  present 
on  that  same  day,  and  at  the  same  hour,  to  deliver  such 
bids,  which  should  be  opened  then  without  delay,  in  pre- 
sence of  the  whole  Building  Committee  and  all  competi- 
tors. 

If  mechanics  have  been  invited  through  the  press,  as  it 
is  generally  done  for  public  works,  the  contract  should  be 
awarded  to  the  competitor  whose  bid  is  the  lowest,  pro. 
vided  that  the  Building  Committee  have  fully  decided  to 
build,  and  such  successful  competitor  can  furnish  all  the 
securities  required  by  law. 

All  the  mechanics  should  be  united  in  refusing  to  bid  on 
any  public  works  unless  the  members  composing  the 
Building  Committee  are  willing,  and  bind  themselves,  to 
comply  with  the  above  rules  and  conditions. 

8.  Contract.— 

In  giving  out  the  contract  of  any  building,  all  the 
original  plans  and  specifications,  and  copies  of  the  same 
should  be  signed  by  both  of  the  contracting  parties,  the 
bondsmen,  and  the  architect.  The  amount  of  contract, 
with  all  the  terms  and  conditions,  should  also  be  attached 
to  the  specifications.  If  the  owners  did  not  get  the  copies 
or  tracings  of  the  plans  before  the  estimates  were  made, 
they  would  do  well  to  secure  them  before  the  work  is 
commenced,  unless  the  building  is  to  be  of  small  dimen- 
sions or  of  a  plain  character;  in  such  cases,  the  specifica- 
tions, which  they  will  have  already  secured,  should  be 
sufficient. 


18  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

9.  Changes  and  Additions.— 

During  the  progress  of  the  work,  should  any  changes  or 
additions  be  proposed,  in  all  cases  the  owners  should  be 
notified;  and  the  mechanics  should  not  commence  such 
changes  and  additions  before  they  have  presented  to  the 
architect  and  to  the  owners  a  bill  of  quantities  of  the  ma- 
terials required,  with  an  estimate  of  cost;  and  a  price - 
should  be  agreed  upon,  for  this  special  contract,  between 
the  owners  and  the  mechanics. 

10.  The  Architect  or  Superintendent  should  visit 
the  building  generally  once  a  day,  in  order  to  have  the 
opportunity  of  observing  everything  closely,  daring  the 
progress   of  the   work.     If  the    building  is  of  great  im- 
portance, large  dimensions,  or  of  an  elaborate  design,  it 
will  be  to  the  interest  of  the  owner  or  Building  Committee, 
as  the  case  may  be,  to  hire  a  special   Superintendent  or 
Clerk  of  works,  to  devote  his  whole  time  and  attention  to 
such  building.     He  should  be  a  competent  mechanic,  well 
acquainted  with  the  practice  of  superintending  all  classes 
of  work,   and   should  be  placed  under  the   orders  and 
general  supervision  of  the  Architect. 

11.  No  Money-Orders  Given  without  Estimates. 
No  money-orders   should  be  given  to   contractors  by 

architects,  before  a  survey  and  detailed  estimate  of  all  the 
materials  furnished  and  delivered  on  the  building  spot  and 
of  all  the  work  done,  have  been  presented  to  the  owners 
or  the  Building  Committee. 

12.  To  avoid  Liens  on  Work. — 

In  no  case  should  contractors  or  mechanics  get  any 
money-orders  from  the  Architect  until  the  owners  or  the 
Building  Committee  have  received  proof  that  no  party 
having  anything  to  do  with  materials  furnished  and  work 
done  on  the  building,  either  directly  or  indirectly  has  any 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  19 

more  claims  for  liens  on  such  building,  unless  the  bonds- 
men* are  known  to  be  fully  and  entirely  responsible  for 
their  trust. 

13.  Final  Payment. — 

Xo  final  payment  should  be  made  before  the  work  has 
been  thoroughly  examined  and  accepted. 

14.  Repairs  and  Alterations.— 

In  all  repairs  and  alterations  for  which  plans  and  speci- 
fications are  needed,  the  same  system  as  indicated  above 
for  buildings  should  be  adopted;  in  cases  of  repairs  and 
alterations  which  do  not  require  any  plans,  the  specific- 
ations are  nevertheless  indispensable,  and  should  be  writ- 
ten as  complete  and  in  the  same  manner  and  form  as 
above  stated. 

15.  Agents  and  Administrators  receiving  bids  for 
buildings  or  any  kind  of  work   should  follow  the  rule  pre- 
scribed in  Article  7,  for  public  works. 

16.     Final  Clause.— 

Xo  footing  courses  for  foundations,  no  plumbing  work 
or  sewers,  joists,  girders,  should  be  covered,  and  no  iron 
columns,  pilasters,  girders,  beams,  lintels,  glass,  should  be 
set  up,  before  being  approved  of.  Close  attention  should 
be  given  to  all  metal  work,  the  thicknesses  of  which  ought 
to  be  even  on  the  whole  surface,  as  specified  for  each  part, 
also  to  the  sizes  and  strength  of  lead  and  iron  pipes.  Xo 
hardware  to  be  set  before  being  submitted  for  approval. 

The  materials  for  painting  should  be  brought  to  the 
building  in  their  original  packages.  Xo  coat  of  paint  or 
varnish  to  receive  a  subsequent  coat  before  being  perfect- 
ly dry  and  examined ;  care  to  be  taken  that  nothing  but 
strictly  pure  white  lead  is  used,  when  so  specified. 

The  owners  should  have  the  exclusive  privilege  to  select 
and  purchase  such  articles  as  mantels  and  grates,  monu- 


20  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

ments,  or  all  kinds  of  fixtures,  unless  they  are  intended  to 
be  worked  out  according  to  the  architect's  designs  and 
specifications,  and  estimated  upon  by  various  mechanics 
as  for  all  other  work.  The  owners  should  also  receive 
bids  for  heating  apparatus,  boilers,  engines  of  any  kinp, 
elevators,  gas  machines,  electric  bells  and  all  other  articles 
which  are  not  manufactured  according  to  the  architect's 
plans  and  specifications.  During  the  progress  of  the 
work,  the  owners  or  Building  Committee  should  have  the 
right  to  interfere  at  any  time,  or  appoint  anybody  whom 
they  may  choose  in  their  place  to  compare  all  parts  and 
dimensions  of  the  building  with  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions, and  scrutinize  all  the  details  and  the  most  secret 
parts  of  such  buildings,  which  sometimes  are  very  costly 
and  offer  the  best  opportunity  for  injustice. 

Lastly,  the  owners  or  the  Building  Committee  should 
have  in  their  power  all  the  necessary  ways  and  means 
to  find  out  and  know  whether  all  such  parts  and  details 
of  such  buildings,  all  the  materials  and  workmanship 
throughout  are  as  designed,  specified,  estimated  upon  and 
contracted  for. 


THE  NEW  SYSTEM  OF  TRANSACTING  THE  BUILD- 
ING BUSINESS  COMPARED  WITH 
THE  OLD. 


The  building  business  is  of  such  great  importance,  and 
involves  such  large  sums  of  money,  that  the  System  of 
transacting  this  business  cannot  be  too  precise  and  defi- 
nite for  the  protection  and  safety  of  the  owners,  archi- 
tects, mechanics  and  the  public  in  general ;  and  such  an 
important  business  should  be  transacted  in  all  the  archi- 
tects7 offices,  with  the  same  care  and  accuracy  as  that 
of  a  counting-house  or  banking-house. 

Nobody  can  deny,  when  considering  this  New  System, 
that  it  is  far  superior  to  the  old  one,  especially  in  these 
two  most  essential  points  required :  Practicability,  and 
the  ways  and  means  of  safety  which  it  affords.  It  is  well 
proved  that  the  old  system  is  not  always  reliable  from  the 
beginning,  as  it  offers  all  possible  chances  for  frauds  and 
plunder,  leads  to  difficulties  and  ruinous  lawsuits;  while 
with  the  New  System,  fair  competition  will  take  place, 
correct  and  reliable  estimates  will  be  submitted,  the 
owners  can  rely  on  valid  and  legitimate  contracts  with 
the  mechanics — the  mechanics  will  know  at  any  time  the 
full  extent  of  their  duties,  and  the  architects  will  not  be 
losing  time  in  adjusting  difficulties  between  the  contract- 
ing parties.  And  moreover,  it  should  be  acknowledged 
by  all,  that  it  offers  the  owners  the  best  possible  guaran- 
tee that  in  all  cases  their  contracts  with  the  mechanics 
will  be  faithfully  carried  out.  Therefore,  do  I  claim  that 
the  New  System  of  Transacting  the  Building  Business,  as 
stated  above  and  in  the  synopsis  below,  should  be  con- 
sidered as  the  only  practical  and  reliable  for  all  parties^ 
and  should  be  carried  out  into  practice  until  another  is 
suggested  and  found  to  be  of  a  better  nature. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  NEW  SYSTEM. 


1.  The  architects  to  draw  the  plans  and  specifications 
for  buildings,  and   see  that  the  mechanics  furnish   the 
materials  and   do  the  work   strictly  according  to    such 
plans  and  specifications. 

2.  Before  estimates  are  made,  the  owners  to   get  in 
their  possession  copies  of  the  specifications  (if  not  also 
the   copies   of   plans ).    Both   sets   of    specifications   and 
ground  plan,  (if  not  all  the  plans, )  to  be  signed  by  the 
owners,  architects,  and  all  bidders. 

3.  The  plans  to   be  thoroughly  figured,   as   stated  in 
details,  and  all  the  figures  to  be  transferred  in  the  speci- 
fications, with  the  number  of  rooms  in  each  story,  number 
of  iron  columns,  lintels,  girders,  windows,  doors,  blinds, 
wash-bowls,  water-closets,  etc.,  etc. 

The  specifications  to  be  written  in  legal  form  ;  changes, 
additions  or  reductions  to  be  mentioned  on  special  sheets 
attached  to  the  specifications,  and  signed  by  all  the 
bidders,  after  all  estimating  is  done. 

4.  For  buildings  of  great  importance,  the  principal  de- 
tail drawings  to  be  made  before  mechanics  can  commence 
estimating. 

5.  To  avoid  all  possible  extra  work  over  the  amount  of 
contract. 

6.  The  owners  to  receive  the  bids  from  the  mechanics, 
in  all  cases  without  exception. 

7.  Bids   for  public   works  to  be  opened  immediately 
after  being  delivered,  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  Build- 
ing Committee  and  all  the  competing  mechanics  ;  the  con- 
tract to  be  be  awarded  to  the  competitor  whose  bid  is  the 
lowest,  provided  he  can  furnish  all  the  securities  required 
by  law. 

8.  All  the  plans  and  specifications  and  copies  of  the 
sa'ne  to  be  signed  by  all  the  interested  parties— the  amount. 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  23 

of  contract  to  be  attached  to  the  specifications.  The 
owners  to  get  copies  of  the  plans  before  the  work  is  com- 
menced (if  not  secured  before),  for  a  costly  building.  When 
the  building  is  of  small  dimensions  or  of  a  plain  character 
the  specifications  are  sufficient. 

9.  Before  changes  and  additions  can  be  made,  a  price 
should  be  agreed  jupon  for  a  special  contract,  between  the 
owners  and  mechanics. 

10.  The  Architect  or  Superintendent  to  visit  the  works 
generally  once  a  day.     If  the  structure  is  of  great  import- 
ance, the  owner  or  the  Building  Committee  should  employ 
a  special  superintendent,   who   should  devote  his  whole 
time  and  attention  to  the  building. 

11.  Xo  money-orders  to  be  given  before  the  proper  sur- 
veys and  detailed  estimates  have  been  furnished. 

12.  To  avoid  liens  on  the  work. 

13.  The  final  payment  cannot  be  made  before  the  work 
has  been  thoroughly  examined  and  accepted. 

14.  All  the  rules  and  regulations  of  this  Xew  System  to 
govern  repairs  and  alterations. 

15.  Agents  and  administrators  to  open  bids  according 
to  rules  prescribed  in  Article  7. 

16.  The   owners  to  have  the   exclusive    privilege    to 
select  and  purchase  mantels  and  grates,  monuments,  and 
all  other  kinds  of  work  or  articles  which  are  not  execut- 
ed according  to  the  Architect's  plans  and  specifications ; 
and  to  require  full  proof  that  all  the  parts  and  details, 
materials  and  workmanship  in  the  buildings  are  as   con- 
tracted for. 

See  details  for  each  article. 


THE    EEOIPEOCAL    DUTIES    OF    OWNEES    AND 
AECHITECTS. 


Experience  teaches  that  owners  contemplating  bnilding 
cannot  invest  money  more  judiciously  than  at  first  paying 
architects  a  fair  price  to  draw  out  good  plans  and  specifi- 
cations for  their  intended  structures  of  any  class.  No 
other  subjects  of  art  or  science  require  more  thought  and 
study,  care  and  attention,  than  the  perfect  design  of  a 
building,  and  almost  every  structure  of  any  kind  is  for  the 
architect  a  new  subject  of  mental  application. 

There  are  grave  reasons  why  plans  should  be  well  stud- 
ied and  drawn  out  most  completely,  and  specifications  be 
written  in  the  most  explicit  manner :  with  such  plans  and 
specifications  the  owner  can  always  get  a  lair  competition 
and  correct  estimates  from  the  several  bidders ;  changes 
and  additions,  which  will  be  very  costly  after  the  work  on 
the  building  is  begun,  may  be  avoided  ;  difficulties  which 
often  arise  between  the  contracting  parties  may  be  ob- 
viated ;  the  construction  and  proportions,  the  satisfac- 
tory arrangement  and  distribution  of  all  the  parts,  the 
symmetry  and  beauty  of  the  whole  structure,  depend  al- 
most entirely  on  those  preliminary  precautions. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  draw  out  general  plans  and  speci- 
fications, and  furnish  the  mechanics  copies  or  tracings  of 
the  same,  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  architect  has  to  get 
out  large-scale  drawings  and  full-size  drawings  for  all  fin- 
ishings, such  as  cornices,  architraves,  moldings,  etc.,  which 
are  indispensable  to  enable  the  mechanics  to  do  and  per- 
form their  work  in  the  manner  required  by  the  contract. 

When  we  consider  the  amount  of  study,  labor  and  time 
which  architects  of  integrity  have  to  devote  to  the  plans, 
specifications  and  superintendence  of  a  building,  from  its 
foundation  to  its  completion,  and  his  expenses  for  services 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE.  25 

of  draughtsmen,  etc.,  it  should  be  acknowledged  by  all,  as 
it  is  by  men  of  experience,  that  the  fees  established  by  the 
Architects7  Institutes  throughout  the  country  are  no  more 
than  a  just  and  fair  compensation  for  their  services.  No 
man  who  is  competent  and  deserves  to  be  ranked  among 
architects,  should  give  his  professional  services  at  lower 
rates,  if  he  intends  to  deal  fairly  with  the  owners  in  every 
way. 

When  architects  are  intrusted  with  the  direction  of 
buildings,  in  order  to  give  the  owners  sufficient  proof  that 
they  can  neither  be  deceived  nor  defrauded,  they  should 
be  willing  to  transact  the  building  business  according  to 
the  "  True  System,"  if  the  owners  agree  to  pay  them  the 
regular  fees  of  architects,  and  also  a  fair  additional  price 
for  copies  of  plans  and  specifications,  which  constitute  the 
principal  ways  and  means  of  safety  afforded  by  the  System, 
when  the  aforesaid  copies  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
owners  before  mechanics  commence  estimating,  as  stated 
in  Article  Xo.  2. 

The  architect's  fees  are  generally  from  2£  to  3  per  cent, 
for  the  plans,  detail  drawings  and  specifications ;  and  from 
2  to  2J  per  cent,  for  the  superintendency ;  or  5  per  cent . 
for  both,  on  the  cost  of  the  entire  work.  All  the  plans, 
drawings  and  specifications,  after  having  been  used  as  in- 
struments of  service,  remain  the  property  of  the  architect. 


RULES    OF    COMPETITION   FOR   ARCHITECTS. 

Architects  should  only  compete  for  public  structures 
of  any  kind,  and  private  buildings  of  an  elaborate  design 
and  large  cost,  in  which  the  owners  are  not  supposed  to 
be  competent  in  making  a  selection  consistent  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  art.  They  should  insist  also,  that  all  the 
different  designs  be  submitted  for  decision  to  one  of  the 


26  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

best  architectural  schools  of  the  country,  or  to  a  Commit- 
tee of  reputed  architects  who  abstained  from  such  coin- 
petition. 

This  Committee  could  be  selected  in  any  large  city  of 
the  United  States.  The  signature  of  each  competitor 
should  be  sealed,  or  replaced  by  a  "  Motto  ". 

It  is  only  after  having  complied  with  such  rules  and  con- 
ditions, and  paid  the  premiums  deserved  by  the  most  com- 
petent designers,  that  the  inviting  parties  could  claim  the 
right  to  favor  a  particular  friend  or  a  relative  of  some 
member  of  the  Committee  bearing  influence  on  the  others, 
by  intrusting  him  with  the  erection  of  their  buildings. 

If  only  a  few  architects  are  invited  to  compete,  they 
should  comply  with  the  rules  stated  above,  unless  every 
competitor  is  to  be  fairly  rewarded  for  his  design. 

Such  a  fair  competition  in  rewarding  merit,  would  give  a 
great  impulse  to  the  artist's  genius,  raise  the  standard  and 
advance  the  prosperity  of  the  profession. 

There  should  be  no  competition  for  any  private  building 
of  a  plain  character  or  even  an  ordinary  first-class  residence, 
as  for  such  buildings  the  owners  generally  dictate  a  great 
deal  about  their  wants,  and  it  must  be  admitted  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  that  no  architect  can  build  cheaper  than  another, 
if  both  of  them  know  their  profession  well  and  intend  to 
deal  fairly ;  consequently  there  cannot  be  much  material 
difference  between  designs  of  this  class ;  and  such  cases 
would  not  justify  the  competition  of  architects  nor  pro- 
mote the  interests  of  the  owners. 

Yet,  if  the  owners  insist  on  a  competition,  no  architect 
should  make  any  plans,  sketches,  or  write  specifications 
unless  he  is  to  receive  a  fair  compensation  for  his  work. 

Architects  cannot  afford  to  make  drawings  of  any  kind 
without  charge,  except  in  a  fair  competition  with  the  hope 
of  getting  a  high  premium  or  a  commission,  as  stated 
above. 


PART  THIRD. 


TREATISE  ON 

MATERIALS  AND  WORKMANSHIP 

In  All  Trades  Connected  with  Building, 


REMARK. 

This  treatise  describes  fully  the  various  qualities  of  the 
work,  which  are  usually  classed  thus:  Best,  Good  and 
Common.  Any  kind  of  work  inferior  in  quality  to  the 
latter  grade  is  worthless,  and  of  course  results  in  a  waste 
of  money. 

It  exposes  and  explains  also  in  detail  all  the  frauds 
which  may  be  perpetrated  in  each  trade,  and  shows  all 
possible  ways  and  means  to  detect  them. 

It  is  accompanied  with  all  the  necessary  Tables  and 
Plates. 


GRANITE,    STOISTE,    MARBLE. 


Granite  is  the  best  building  material.  Its  constituent 
parts  are  concretions  of  felspar,  quartz  and  mica.  This 
kind  of  stone  is  only  imperfectly  and  slowly  calculable  in 
great  heat ;  but  being  too  expensive,  it  is  not  much  used 
except  for  a  few  public  buildings ;  Lime  and  Sandstones, 
which  are  much  cheaper,  take  its  place.  Hardness,  tena- 
city and  compactness  are  the  principal  qualities  required 
for  all  building  stones.  Those  which  are  acted  upon  by 
the  air,  owing  to  several  causes,  are  not  durable.  Decom- 
position and  disintegration  are  the  causes  which  accelerate 
their  decay  and  destruction.  The  former  effects  a  chemi- 
cal change  in  the  stone  itself;  and  the  latter,  a  mechanical 
division  and  separation  of  its  component  parts.  The 
effects  produced  by  these  causes  on  the  stones  of  buildings, 
are  much  modified  according  to  their  situation.  The  state 
of  atmosphere  in  populous  and  smoky  cities  accelerates 
their  decomposition  more  than  in  the  open  country.  Some 
stones  will  crumble  to  powder  a  few  years  after  being  ex- 
posed to  the  air  or  moisture,  although  their  power  of  in- 
duration seems  to  be  very  great,  when  first  taken  out  of 
the  earth  ;  such  is  generally  the  case  with  that  kind  of 
stone  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  clay  (alumine). 
The  great  affinity  which  clay  has  for  water  induces  an  ab- 
sorption of  moisture  from  the  air,  by  which  the  volume  of 
the  stone  tends  to  increase,  and  the  aggregation  of  the 
parts  is  destroyed.  Other  stones  lose  much  of  their  ag- 
gregation by  the  loss  of  water.  This  is  the  case  with  some 
marbles  and  the  crystallized  carbonate  of  lime,  and  with 
others  that  are  composed  of  an  acid  and  earth  combined 
with  water. 


GRANITE,    STONE,   MARBLE.  29 

Limestones.  —  As  regards  limestones,  composed  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  or  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
either  nearly  pure  or  mixed  with  foreign  matter  in  variable 
proportions,  their  decomposition  depends  upon  the  mode 
in  which  their  component  parts  are  aggregated.  Those 
which  are  the  most  crystalline  are  the  most  durable,  and 
burn  the  whitest. limes;  while  the  others  suffer  most  from 
atmospheric  influences. 

Sandstones. — With  respect  to  the  sandstones  that  are 
usually  employed  for  buildings,  and  generally  composed  of 
either  quartz  or  siliceous  grains,  cemented  by  siliceous, 
calcareous  or  other  matter,  their  decomposition  is  effected 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  cementing  substance. 

Decay  of  Stone. — The  great  agent  of  destruction  of 
building  stones  is  the  damp,  or  the  water  supplied  by  the 
atmosphere,  directly  or  indirectly. 

Consequently,  porous,  absorbent  stones  should  not  be 
used  in  the  ground  or  set  on  the  ground,  unless  in  the  first 
case,  they  can  be  kept  constantly  wet.  Porous  stones 
should  not  be  used  for  the  copings,  parapets,  window-sills, 
weather-beds  of  cornices,  plinths,  strings,  or  other  parts 
of  a  building  where  water  may  lodge. 

Preservation  of  Stone.— After  all  the  best  precau- 
tions to  preserve  the  stones  in  buildings,  have  been  taken, 
yet  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  protect  the  exposed  sur- 
faces of  the  soft  and  absorbent,  with  some  kind  of  coating 
to.  prevent  their  absorbing  the  injuries  of  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  done  in  various  processes,  viz  : 

1.  By  painting.  This  process  is  objectionable,  as  the 
oil  evaporates,  the  stone  becomes  again  exposed,  and  the 
frequent  repetition  of  the  process  becomes  costly,  and 
destroys  any  delicate  molded  work. 

-2.  The  second  process  is  to  wash  the  stone  with  a  solu- 
tion of  an  alkaline  silicate,  as  silicate  of  soda,  or  potassa. 


30  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

This  solution  is  able  to  convert  the  material  into  an  insol- 
uble non-absorbent  substance,  in  converting  the  carbon- 
ates of  lime  into  silicates  of  lime,  through  the  effective 
affinities  of  the  lime  and  the  silica.  This  process  is  only 
applicable  to  the  preservation  of  the  stones  in  which  the 
carbonates  of  lime  predominate. 

3.  By  filling  in  the  pores  of  the  stone  with  an  insoluble 
material  which  should  effectually  exclude  water.  After 
the  stone  has  been  cleaned  carefully  from  dust  or  other 
extraneous  matters,  it  is  made  to  absorb  as  large  a  quan- 
tity as  possible  of  the  silicate  of  soda  or  potassa.  When 
this  solution  has  dried  into  the  stone,  a  second  wash  is  ap- 
plied, consisting  of  the  chloride  of  calcium  or  of  baryta. 
The  silicate  of  soda  and  the  chloride  of  calcium  are  most 
frequently  used.  This  process  is  applied  with  equal  advan- 
tage to  limestones,  sandstones,  bricks,  plasters  and  ce- 
ments. 

None  but  the  best  limestone,  or  granite,  should  be  used 
for  the  foundations  of  good  buildings.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  none  of  that  blue  clay  color  stone  (called  lime- 
stone) is  introduced  into  masonry  when  good  work  is  re- 
quired, especially  in  places  where  it  will  be  affected  by 
the  action  of  alternate  dryness  and  moisture ;  for  it  will 
soon  decay  and  crumble  when  so  situated. 

Sandstones  are  generally  too  soft  to  be  used  for  steps 
and  pavements,  and  too  porous  and  absorbent  to  be  set 
level  with  the  ground. 

Marble. — The  varieties  of  marbles  are  almost  infinite, 
and  their  classification  is,  of  course,  impracticable. 

All  the  varieties  may  be  burnt  into  quick-lime,  but  some 
of  them  will  fall  into  a  kind  of  sand,  and  therefore  cannot 
be  used  in  a  common  kiln.  The  external  characteristics 
are  as  follows  : 

Colors — ivhite,  gray,  red,  yellow  and  green.  Marble  has 
generally  but  one  color,  though  it  is  often  spotted,  dotted, 


GRANITE,    STONE,    MARBLE.  31 

striped  and  veined.  In  some  cites  of  this  country  marble 
is  much  employed  in  place  of  stone,  for  fronts  of  build- 
ings ;  but  throughout  the  whole  country  it  is  chiefly  used 
for  chimney  pieces,  vestibule  floors  and  tiling,  washstands, 
wainscots  in  costly  buildings,  and  monuments. 


LIMES,    CEMENTS,    MORTARS,     CON- 
CRETE, ETC. 


Limes.  Marbles  or  any  pure  limestones  produce  quick- 
lime. The  pure  limestones  yield  the  whitest  and  richest 
limes.  Limestone  requires  burning  about  sixty  hours  to 
be  reduced  to  lime,  if  the  heat  is  strong  and  well  regulated. 
The  expulsion  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  enters  into 
its  composition  is  the  main  object.  The  lime  generally 
considered  the  best  is  that  which  heats  most  in  slacking, 
and  slacks  the  quickest,  being  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 
If  lime  contains  uuslackable  lumps  that  cannot  pass  through 
the  screen,  either  the  stone  has  not  been  sufficiently  burnt, 
or  it  contained  originally  some  extraneous  matter.  This 
is  not  only  a  defect  in  the  quality,  but  it  renders  the  lime 
more  costly  in  use. 

Limes  are  of  five  classes,  viz :  1,  The  common  or  fat 
limes.  2,  The  poor  or  meagre  limes.  3,  The  hydraulic 
limes.  4,  The  hydraulic  cements.  5,  The  natural  puzzuo- 
lana. 

Rich  limes  are  entirely  dissolved  in  water,  and  do  not 
harden  without  the  action  of  the  air;  puzzuolana  or  trass 
renders  them  hydraulic.  These  limes  shrink  in  harden- 


32  BUILDING  SAF E-GUIDE. 

iDg  to  such  a  degree  that  they  cannot  be  used  without  a 
large  quantity  of  sand. 

Poor  or  Meagre  Limes  do  not  increase  much  in  bulk ; 
the  poorer  limes,  when  combined  with  silica,  have  the  pro- 
perty of  indurating  under  water,  and  of  course  are  the 
best  adapted  for  the  admixture  of  hydraulic  cements  or 
mortars. 

Cements  that  become  solid  and  hard  under  water  are  pro- 
duced by  hydraulic  limestones  containing  iron  and  clay. 

Hydraulic  Limes  readily  harden  under  water. 

The  real  hydraulic  set  from  the  1st  to  the  4th  day  after 
immersion,  and  are  known  as  eminently  hydraulic;  those 
that  set  from  6  to  8  days  are  simply  hydraulic  ;  others  that 
set  from  15  to  20  days,  are  slightly  hydraulic.  Six  months 
after  their  immersion  the  best  limes  can  be  worked  like 
the  natural  hard  limestones.  The  strength  of  hydraulic 
limes  increases  when  mixed  with  sand. 

Puzzuolana,  which  is  of  volcanic  origin,  comprises  vari- 
ous kinds  of  sands,  granites,  trass  or  terras,  and  other 
kinds  of  earths ;  which  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
silica  and  alumina.  Lime  in  slacking  absorbs  a  mean  of 
2.5  times  its  volume,  and  2.25  its  weight  of  water.  The 
hydraulic  limes  absorb  less  water  than  the  pure  limes,  and 
only  increase  in  bulk  from  1.75  to  2.5  times  their  original 
volume. 

Pulverized  Silica  burned  with  rich  lime  produces  excel- 
lent hydraulic  lime. 

Brick  dust  and  burnt  clay  ballast  possess  some  hydraulic 
power,  when  combined  with  rich  lime. 

Artificial  hydraulic  limes  can  never  possess  the  same  de- 
gree of  hardu  ess  and  power  of  resistance  as  the  natural 
limes  of  this  class. 

Cements.  Hydraulic  cements  do  not  slack  after  calci- 
nation, and  are  better  than  the  best  hydraulic  limes.  They 
make  an  excellent  mortar  without  sand,  and  do  not  shrink 
in  hardening. 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   MORTARS.  33 

Roman  Cement,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  best,  is 
made  of  a  lime  found  in  England  and  France,  derived  from 
argillo-calcareous,  kidney-shaped  stones  called  Scptaria. 
The  very  best  can  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to 
two  parts  of  sand.  It  sets  very  rapidly. 

Portland  Cement  is  made  in  England  and  France,  from 
limestone  and  clay.  The  quantity  of  lime  to  clay  is  in  the 
proportion  of  two  to  one.  This  cement  is  of  a  superior 
quality  and  can  not  be  surpassed  by  any  other  known,  to 
resist  water,  frost  or  other  decomposing  agencies.  It  sets 
slowly,  and  requires  less  water  than  the  Koinan  cement. 

Eosendale  Cement  is  from  Kosendale,  New  York,  and  one 
of  the  best  in  this  country. 

Ackron  Cement  of  Ackron,  Illinois,  is  also  excellent. 

The  Louisville  Cement  is  sometimes  good  enough  for  or- 
dinary work;  but  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  as  others  men- 
tioned above  for  outside  work,  or  any  masonry  which  re- 
quires strength  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Artificial  Cement  is  made  of  slacked  lime  with  uuburned 
clay. 

A  cement  which  will  resist  the  effects  of  a  moist  climate, 
is  composed  of  one  bushel  of  lime  with  15  gallons  of  water 
and  £  bushel  of  fine  gravel  sand,  mixed  with  3J  Ibs.  of 
copperas  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  kept  stirred  while 
being  incorporated  and  in  use. 

Gypsum,  generally  better  known  as  Plaster  of  Paris  is  a 
sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  found  in  England,  in  France  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  and  other  localities  of  that 
country  ;  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  Spain  and  Switzerland, 
also  in  the  British  Colonies  of  Xorth  America.  The  stone 
is  broken  into  small  blocks,  and  burnt  in  a  walled  space 
with  openings  in  the  roof  to  let  out  the  steam.  After  its 
water  of  crystallization  is  driven  off,  it  becomes  pulveru- 
lent and  like  flour.  When  fresh  water  is  added,  it  receives 
its  former  density  and  strength  to  a  high  degree.  The 
plaster  obtained  from  Paris  is  known  to  be  the  best  in  the 


34  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDti. 

world,  as  the  stone  is  the  hardest.  Its  constituent  parts 
are  acid  46,  lime  32,  and  water  21. 

Bituminous  Cements.  The  best  are  obtained  from  the 
natural  Asplialte,  which  is  found  in  abundance  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  Trinidad,  Albania  and  other  places  in 
Europe.  The  principal  ingredient  in  its  composition  is  a 
bituminous  limestone,  of  a  rich  brown  color.  After  being 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  a  portion  of  grit  is  mixed  with 
it;  then  it  is  placed  in  cauldrons  heated  by  strong  tires 
with  sufficient  quantity  of  mineral  tar  to  prevent  the 
asphalte  from  calcining.  The  whole  mass  being  thor- 
oughly incorporated  is  reduced  to  a  mastic ;  and  in  that 
state,  it  is  run  into  moulds  to  form  blocks,  each  1  foot  6 
inches  square,  6  inches  in  depth,  weighing  125  Ibs. 

Mortars.  —  Mortar  composed  of  quicklime  and  sand 
only  should  be  made  up  several  days  before  being  used. 
The  best  is  three  or  four  weeks  old.  It  is  prepared  at  tirst 
in  large  quantity,  and  afterwards  manipulated  again  to  be- 
come fit  for  immediate  use.  When  rich  limes  are  employed 
the  quality  of  mortar  is  increased,  if  the  sand  is  in  propor- 
tions varying  from  50  to  225  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the 
paste,  according  to  the  kind  of  sand  and  the  character  of 
limes  used;  but  it  decreases  beyond  this  proportion. 

All  mortars  which  contain  cement,  should  be  used  im- 
mediately after  being  mixed  up,  as  cement  generally  sets 
very  quickly.  However,  there  are  also  some  slow  setting 
cements,  such  as  the  Natural  Portland,  which  can  be  re- 
mixed with  more  water  after  12  or  24  hours. 

A  good  common  mortar  for  stone  and  brick  masonry  is 
composed  of  1  part  of  lime  and  from  3  to  5  parts  .of  sand, 
(depending  on  the  quality  of  the  lime  used,  and  also  on  the 
quality  of  masonry  required). 

A  better  mortar  for  masonry  is  made  of  3  parts  of 
cement,  1  part  of  lime,  and  8  parts  of  sand. 

Quality  of  Materials. — The  sand  should  always  be  sharp 
and  clean,  and  should  by  all  means,  if  possible,  be  pro- 


LIMES,    CEMENTS,  MORTARS.  35 

cured  from  a  river  or  a  rutmmg  stream,  in  preference  to 
that  obtained  from  pits,  as  it  is  cleaner  and  not  so  con- 
nected with  clayed  or  muddy  particles.  It  is  used  in  the 
proportion  of  2  parts  of  coarse  and  1  part  of  fine,  at  least 
for  brickwork. 

Mortar  for  brick  masonry  requires  finer  sand  than  that 
used  for  stone  masonry,  otherwise  the  joints  would  be  too 
thick.  The  lime  should  be  fresh  burned,  and  no  air-slacked 
lime  should  be  allowed  in  good  mortar.  (See  Cements.) 

Cement  Mortar. — The  best  cement  mortar  consists  of  1 
measure  of  pure  cement  and  £  measure  of  water ;  and  it 
should  be  used  for  the  best  work  in  all  parts  of  a  building 
exposed  to  water  or  dampness,  and  for  walls  or  piers  in- 
tended to  support  heavy  weights;  for  towers,  steeples, 
domes,  vaults,  smoke  stacks,  etc.  HoAvever,  this  kind  of 
mortar,  which  is  very  expensive  can  be  replaced  for  the 
same  purposes  by  another,  cheaper  and  good  enough,  if 
composed  of  2  parts  of  sand  and  2  parts  of  cement,  or 
only  1  part  of  cement  to  2  parts  of  sand,  especially  when 
Portland  cement  is  used. 

1'ointiny  Mortar. — A  strong  mortar  for  pointing  is  made 
in  the  proportion  of  1  measure  of  cement  to  2  measures 
of  sand  and  J  measure  of  water. 

Before  the  pointing  is  done,  the  surface  of  the  walls 
is  thoroughly  wetted,  and  the  joints  made  about  f  or 
J  inch  deep,  and  from  J  to  fV  of  an  inch  wide; 
then  the  mortar  is  put  in  by  the  trowel  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a  straight  edge :  and,  after  it  has  been  well 
calked  in,  and  the  joints  well  filled,  it  is  rubbed  with 
great  pressure.  The  pointing  should  not  dry  very 
quickly,  and  therefore  should  be  protected  against  the 
sun  for  some  time  in  hot  weather. 

When  lime  is  mixed  with  the  cement  for  work  exposed 
to  moisture,  it  should  be  'hydraulic  lime. 

Grout  or  Liquid  Mortar,  is  nothing  more  than  ordinary 
mortar  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  make  it 


36  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

fluid  enough  to  penetrate  into  the  interstices  and  irregular- 
ities of  the  interior  of  brick  walls,  which  common  mortar 
will  not  reach.  Pure  cement  is  the  best  for  grouting, 
as  for  other  mortars. 

Mortar  for  cut  stone  work,  is  made  of  the  best  lime,  and 
clean-washed  fine  sharp  sand. 

Mortar  for  Stock  Brick  Fronts. — The  mortar  generally 
used  is  composed  of  1  part  of  lime  and  2  parts  of  white 
sand;  it  makes  a  very  fine  joint,  but  is  not  strong  and 
shrinks  in  hardening. 

A  better  mortar  is  sometimes  used,  composed  of  1 
part  of  lime,  2  parts  of  sand  and  1  part  of  cement;  it 
does  not  shrink  and  makes  a  joint  close  enough,  about 
Y\  of  an  inch  thick. 

Black  Mortar  is  made  by  adding  to  the  ordinary  mortar 
either  lamp  black  or  bone  black,  the  latter  is  the  best  and 
will  not  run.  Lamp  black  runs  down  and  stains  the  face 
of  brick  or  stone;  but  this  defect  can  even  be  obviated,  if 
lamp  black  and  bone  black  be  used  in  equal  parts.  Some- 
times glazier's  putty  is  mixed  in  the  mortar  for  the  best 
kind  of  work. 

Ashes-Mortar,  is  made  of  one  part  of  fresh  burned  lime, 
and  1£  part  of  wood  ashes,  which,  when  cold  must  be 
well  beaten.  This  mixture  is  superior  in  resisting  the 
alternate  effects  of  dryness  and  moisture,  but  not  very 
good  under  water. 

Defects  in  the  Use  oj  Mortars. — Common  lime  mortar 
used  in  place  of  cement  mortar  for  all  work  exposed  to 
weather  or  dampness,  rots  in  a  short  time  and  becomes 
useless.  Mortars  composed  of  1  part  of  lime  and  from 
6  to  8  parts  of  sand,  prepared  and  made  up  for  imme- 
diate use  (as  it  is  often  practiced)  are  not  much  better 
than  mud,  and  should  not  be  allowed  in  any  masonry 
whether  for  a  costly  or  cheap  building.  Common  lime 
mortar  may  be  used  sometimes  instead  of  cement  mortar, 
and  very  poor  cement  for  the  best,  as  called  for  by  the 
specifications  . 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   MORTARS.  37 

Concrete,  is  a  niortar  composed  of  coarse  sand,  gravel 
or  broken  stones,  etc.,  mixed  with  cement  or  lime,  or  both. 
Bounded  pebbles  of  gravel  are  not  so  good  as  small  angular 
stones ;  but  fragments  of  brick  or  burnt  clay  are  excellent. 
The  firmest  concrete  contains  no  lime,  and  when  mixed  in 
the  right  proportion  of  the  best  cement,  it  is  so  strong 
that  it  can  be  used  in  place  of  masonry,  which  is  more  ex- 
pensive, for  many  other  parts  of  a  building  besides  foun- 
dations and  walls.  Europe  furnishes  a  great  many  exam- 
ples exhibiting  the  excellent  quality  of  concrete  in  some 
buildings  over  one  thousand  years  old,  where  arches  and 
domes  have  been  built  with  that  material.  Now,  it  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  foundations  on  soft  soil. 

Good  Common  Concrete,  is  composed  of  1  part  of  quick 
lime,  and  from  6  to  8  parts  of  gravel,  coarse  sand,  and 
small  broken  stones  or  fragments  of  brick. 

Hydraulic  Concrete  is  composed  of  1J  parts  of  unslacked 
lime,  1£  parts  of  sand,  1  part  of  gravel  and  2  parts  of  a 
hard  broken  limestone  (McAdam). 

Best  Concrete  foundations :     1  part   of  cement,  2  parts 
of  sand,  5  parts  of  small  clean    broken  limestones, 
Adam).     In  all  cases  the  sand  should  be  clean. 


38  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


FOUNDATIONS. 


For  ail  buildings,  after  the  trenches  or  pits  have  been 
excavated  to  their  first  intended  depth,  the  soil  should  be 
well  tested  before  the  masonry  walls  can  be  started.  The 
foundations  to  be  most  guarded  against  are  log-earth,  soft 
clay  and  made  earth. 

If  the  tests  indicate  that  the  soil  lying  under  the  level 
of  the  trenches  is  not  firm  enough  to  support  the  walls  of 
the  structure,  then  the  best  remedy  is  to  dig  down  to  the 
wild  bottom  in  several  places  along  the  trenches,  and 
either  carry  up  piers  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the 
building,  by  throwing  arches  across  from  one  to  the  other, 
at  the  proper  height  for  the  lowest  story,  with  buttresses 
at  the  angles  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the  arches,  or 
build  solid  walls  of  masonry.  But  if  the  depth  be  so  great 
as  to  render  this  impracticable,  we  must  have  recourse  to 
some  artificial  means  of  support. 

If  the  soil  is  not  softened  by  water  running  through  it, 
the  trenches  should  be  dug  much  wider,  and  from  two  to 
six  feet  deeper  (according  to  the  strength  of  foundations 
required  by  the  weight  of  the  walls),  and  then  filled  to 
their  entire  width  at  the  bottom  with  concrete  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : 

After  the  lime  has  been  mixed  with  the  sand,  stones,  etc., 
water  is  added  to  slack  the  lime  ;  and  the  whole  being  quick- 
ly mixed  together  on  a  platform  provided  for  that  purpose, 
is  either  deposited  into  the  trenches  and  rammed  down 
with  heavy  rammers,  or  thrown  into  them  from  a  height 
of  from  12  to  15  feet.  When  it  has  hardened,  it  becomes 
a  safe  foundation  for  the  building. 

Before  the  concrete  is  laid,  the  bottom  of  the  trenches 
should  be  saturated  with  cement  mortar  so  as  to  prevent 


FOUNDATIONS.  39 

the  water  in  the  concrete  from  wasting  away.  After  the 
foundation  is  completed,  the  concrete  should  be  covered 
with  sand,  four  inches  thick  at  least,  to  prevent  it  from 
drying  too  fast,  and  keep  the  bulk  of  the  concrete  more 
uniformly  solid. 

If  the  soil  is  naturally  damp,  it  is  a  good  precaution  to 
use  cement  or  hydraulic  lime  in  the  concrete  instead  of 
common  lime,  to  resist  the  effects  of  dampness  and  avoid 
any  possible  settlements.  Layers  of  coarse  gravel  or  small 
broken  stones  are  good  enough  and  may  be  substituted  for 
concrete  in  many  places. 

Concrete  Foundations  have  been  used  for  many 
large  buildings  with  complete  success.  Those  of  the 
London  University  and  St.  George's  Hospital  in  England, 
and  the  New  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  St.  Louis,  are 
striking  examples  of  their  adequate  and  superior  qualities. 
For,  although  the  ground  on  which  these  buildings  were 
erected  was  very  soft,  and  partly  intersected  with  old 
sewers  and  cess-pools,  and  partly  on  clay,  there  is  not  the 
least  appearance  of  unequal  settlements  in  any  part  of 
them. 

For  uneren  foundations,  the  common  practice  of  building 
up  masonry  walls  by  steps,  is  not  so  safe  as  the  use  of  con- 
crete for  bringing  up  the  irregularities  of  the  soil  to  a 
level.  This  last  means  is  more  effective  than  the  former 
in  preventing  any  unequal  settlement  in  the  walls. 

In  all  cases,  when  a  soft  and  unreliable  ground,  exposed 
to  running  water,  overlies  a  firm  one,  at  such  a  depth  that 
the  excavation  of  trenches  and  erection  of  walls  or  piers 
would  become  troublesome  and  dangerous,  Piling  is  the 
safest  foundation  that  can  be  adopted. 

Piles  should  be  made  of  very  sound  timber  :  either  oak, 
elm,  yellow  or  white  pine,  or  spruce  ;  straight  and  round, 
free  from  bark  and  projecting  stubs,  from  ten  to  eight- 
een inches  diameter  at  the  top.  They  are  driven  into  the 
ground  at  a  distance  of  three  or  four  feet  from  centre  to 


40  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

centre,  by  means  of  a  heavy  hammer  raised  at  a  consider- 
able height  with  machinery. 

The  best  foundations  are  known  to  be  rocfr,  gravel 
and  stiff  dry  clay ;  yet  the  most  experienced  architects 
and  other  constructionists  of  all  ages  advise  us  not  to 
trust  them  too  hastily ;  for,  although  they  may  resist  the 
pick-axe,  they  may  either  be  weakened  by  cavities  or  un- 
derlied  with  very  soft  ground  only  a  few  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  trenches,  which  may  cause  the  ruin  of  the 
building.  Therefore,  if  the  excavation  of  deep  cellars  or 
wells  in  the  neighborhood  has  not  already  given  a  positive 
evidence  that  the  ground  is  reliable  to  a  considerable 
depth  below  the  level  where  the  walls  were  intended  to 
be  started  ;  then  after  having  levelled  off  the  trenches  all 
around,  it  is  a  good  precaution  to  test  it  at  different  spots 
by  boring  or  digging  holes  from  5  to  8  feet  deep  (depend- 
ing on  the  weight  of  the  intended  structure).  If  the  soil 
is  solid  to  that  depth  it  will  be  safe  to  proceed  at  once 
with  the  masonry ;  for  a  stratum  of  firm  ground  of  that 
thickness  should  be  considered  just  as  strong,  at  least  for 
any  ordinary  or  even  a  heavy  structure,  as  any  artificial 
foundation,  such  as  concrete,  which  is  laid  over  soft  and 
unreliable  soil  for  supporting  heavy  edifices,  as  stated 
above. 

The  practice  of  building  masonry  walls  on  wooden  plat- 
forms or  planking  is  dangerous  ;  for  if  the  timbers  are  not 
constantly  kept  thoroughly  wet,  they  will  rot  in  a  short 
time,  causing  very  alarming  settlements  in  the  walls. 
Such  foundations  should  not  be  used  except  for  light  and 
cheap  buildings,  and  then  the  timbers  should  be  well  coat- 
ed with  tar  before  they  are  laid ;  yet  the  walls,  however 
equal  their  settlements  may  be  in  appearance,  are  always 
expected  to  crack  in  a  short  time. 


STONE  MASONRY.  41 


STONE   MASONRY. 


Foundation  Walls.  Before  the  work  can  be  started,  the 
bottom  of  the  trenches  should  be  levelled  off,  and  rammed 
with  heavy  rammers ;  if  the  masonry  is  built  on  concrete 
foundations,  the  surface  of  the  concrete  should  be  per- 
fectly cleaned  off  and  thoroughly  wetted  before  the  mortar 
is  spread  to  receive  the  footings. 

Footing  Courses.  To  commence  the  masonry  by  first  lay- 
ing  a,  footing  course  all  round,  which  is  generally  the  only 
one  used  for  houses  and  other  buildings  of  ordinary  di- 
mensions. For  heavier  structures,  several  footing  courses 
are  laid  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  1),  their  number  being 
regulated  by  the  weight  of  the  walls ;  each  of  them  de- 
creases in  breadth  as  they  rise  by  sets  off  on  each  side  of 
from  6  to  12  inches,  and  should  reach  across  each  course 
from  one  side  of  the  wall  to  the  other.  When  the  walls 
are  so  thick,  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  secure  all  the 
stones  long  enough  for  that  purpose,  then  every  sec- 
ond stone  in  the  footing  course  may  be  a  whole  stone  in 
breadth,  and  each  space  filled  with  stones  of  equal  width. 
When  stones  of  a  length  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  course 
can  not  be  procured,  it  is  proper  and  necessary  to  alter- 
nate the  headers  and  stretchers  on  both  sides,  so  that  the 
whole  course  may  be  well  and  thoroughly  united  in  the  di- 
rection of  its  thickness.  All  the  footing  stones  should  be 
square,  of  the  same  thickness  in  the  same  course,  and 
placed  with  their  broadest  bed  downwards.  The  footings 
should  be  laid  so  that  the  joints  of  any  course  may  fall  in 
the  middle  of  the  stones  below.  Each  stone  should  be 
thorough^  wetted  before  setting,  and  settled  with  a  heavy 
wooden  rammer.  The  stones  in  the  first  course  should  be 


42  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

solidly  bedded  in  the  soil,  so  as  to  have  no  rocking  tend- 
ency. In  damp  soil,  the  outside  face  of  footings  should  be 
pargeted  up  from  top  of  concrete  with  hydraulic  lime  mor- 
tar H  inch  in  thickness  at  least ;  the  pargeting  is  to  make 
a  close  and  water-tight  connection  with  the  concrete  and 
become  sufficiently  hard  before  filling  in. 

Joints  of  Footings.  The  joints  should  be  close,  not  over 
one  inch  open,  for  the  best  work,  arid  flushed  full  of  mor- 
tar ;  no  chips  or  spawls  (small  broken  stones)  should  be 
allowed  either  between  stones,  or  for  the  purpose  of  pin- 
ning up  or  leveling  stones  in  the  work.  All  stones  should 
be  laid  in  the  same  direction  or  bed  as  they  lay  in  the 
quarry. 

Walls.  The  walls  that  are  erected  on  the  top  of  foot!  in/ 
courses  are  sometimes,  but  very  seldom,  built  of  large  di- 
mension stones  partly  running  through  their  whole  thick- 
ness, and  dressed  either  on  both  sides  or  one  side  only. 
They  are  most  generally  built  of  rubble  work. 

Rubble  Work-.  This  species  of  work  is  of  two  kinds, 
called  coursed  and  uncoursed. 

Coursed  Work.  The  coursed  work  is  the  best  of  the  two ; 
all  the  stones  used  are  gauged  and  dressed  by  the  hammer, 
laid  in  courses  on  a  perfect  level.  This  kind  of  masonry 
is  built  either  in  regular  courses  called  regular  range  work, 
or  in  irregular  and  interrupted  courses  with  stones  of  differ- 
ent sizes  called  random  range  work  or  broken  range  work. 
All  stones  should  fit  so  closely  as  to  avoid  interstices 
large  enough  between  them  to  require  filling  with  chips  or 
spawls  (small  broken  stones).  The  joints  should  not  exceed 
1  inch  in  thickness. 

Care  to  be  taken  to  make  all  parts  of  the  walls  of  equal 
solidity  by  filling  well  their  inner  joints  both  horizontally 
and  vertically. 

In  Regular  Range  Work  no  second  course  should  com- 
mence before  the  lower  one  is  fully  completed  around  the 
whole  building  (as  a  general  rule). 


STONE   MASONRY.  43 

This  kind  of  w<  rk  being  very  expensive  is  not  often  used 
in  foundation  walls  except  for  public  buildings  and  some 
large  and  costly  houses.  Coursed  icork  should  always  be 
built  instead  of  uncoursed  worTc  when  strength  is  required 
in  an  eminent  degree.  The  walls  above  the  ground  are 
often  faced  with  coursed  icork. 

Tiu'ourwil  Work.  In  the  uncoursed  work  the  stones  are 
laid  in  the  walls  as  they  come  to  hand,  being  prepared  only 
by  knocking  off  the  sharp  angles  with  the  hammer.  This 
kind  of  work,  when  built  with  care  is  good  enough  for  all 
ordinary  purposes.  All  interstices  in  the  walls  are  to  be 
filled  with  cliipx  or  .^Hurlx  and  mortar  pressed  in  to  a  solid 
consistency;  care  to  be  taken  to  make  all  parts  of  the 
walls  of  equal  solidity. 

Jtontl.  To  lay  in  the  walls  a  sufficient  number  of  bond 
stones  having  an  excess  of  length,  and  not  of  height  to 
bind  the  work  and  make  it  uniformly  compact.  For  the 
best  kind  of  uncoursed  work,  there  should  be  a  bond  stone 
running  through  the  thickness  of  the  walls  at  every  super- 
ficial yard,  (when  the  walls  are  not  unusually  thick).  All 
quoins  and  angles,  window  and  door  jambs,  that  have  no 
cut  stone  trimmings  should  be  built  with  large  stones  ham- 
mer-dressed laid  alternately  in  headers  and  stretchers. 

Pier  a  All  stone  piers  should  be  built  in  regular  courses  ; 
the  stones  may  be  rough  on  their  faces,  but  they  should 
always  have  their  beds  dressed  so  nicely  as  to  lay  per- 
fectly level  and  form  an  even  joint  on  the  whole  surface. 

Inverted  Arches.  For  heavy  buildings,  when  piers  are 
built  in  place  of  solid  walls  of  masonry,  unless  they  rest  on 
rock,  it  has  been  a  practice  from  an  early  age  to  turn  at 
the  bottom  inverted  arches  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  2),  for 
distributing  the  weight  equally  throughout  the  length  of 
the  foundations,  in  order  to  prevent  accidents  or  unequal 
settlements,  which  may  otherwise  occur  from  uneven 
bearing. 

Arches.    All  stones  for  arches  to  openings  should  have 


44  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

their  beds  dressed,  and  cut  so  as  to  have  the  joints  drawn 
from  the  point  of  radius  by  which  the  arch  is  described. 

All  the  stone  used  in  the  foundation  walls  should  be  the 
best  limestone,  if  not  granite.  For  the  best  kind  of  work 
all  stones  are  laid  in  the  walls  in  the  same  direction  or 
bed  as  they  lay  in  the  quarry. 

Filling  In.  As  soon  as  the  walls  can  permit,  the  trenches 
all  around  should  be  refilled  with  earth  so  as  to  protect 
the  masonry  against  water,  which  may  wash  away  the 
mortar  and  soften  the  masonry.  The  earth  should  be  put 
in  wet,  and  rammed  down  to  a  solid  consistency,  as  it  is 
being  deposited. 

Work  Overground.— The  walls  built  overground  with 
Ashlar  facing  are  backed  either  with  rubble  masonry 
or  brick.  Fronts  of  houses  in  many  cities  of  this  country 
generally  consist  of  a  sandstone  ashlar  front  from  4  to 
8  inches  in  thickness,  backed  with  brick ;  sometimes 
the  limestone  is  used  in  place  of  the  sandstone.  There 
are  no  bond  stones  in  the  wall,  the  ashlar  being  anchored 
to  the  brickwork  with  iron  anchors.  This  kind  of  work 
requires  a  good  quality  hard  brick  laid  in  cement  mortar, 
and  yet  is  not  so  good  as  a  wall  built  entirely  of  either 
brick  or  stone  would  be.  When  a  wall  is  built  of  stone 
masonry  and  faced  with  ashlar  (cut  stone),  if  the  piers  be- 
tween the  openings  are  narrow  (as  often  seen,  especially 
in  store  fronts,)  they  can  be  made  either  of  one  solid 
piece,  or  laid  in  several  pieces,  each  piece  running  through 
the  wall.  If  the  piers  are  wide,  every  alternate  jamb 
stone  should  go  through  the  wall,  and  the  number  of  bond 
stones  between  the  jambs  must  be  proportioned  to  the 
width  of  the  pier.  Bases  and  caps  of  pilasters  or  piers, 
and  keystones  (centre-pieces  of  arches),  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, should  go  through  the  wall.  In  some  buildings  the 
walls  are  built  entirely  of  cut  stone. 

Bond  Stones  should  not  be  spared  in  long  courses  be- 
low and  above  windows;  and  their  horizontal  dimension 


STONE  MASONRY.  45 

should  never  be  less  than  the  vertical  one,  otherwise  they 
would  produce  a  bad  effect  to  the  eye. 

Various  Styles  of  Stone  Cutting. — The  various 
kinds  of  ashlar  or  styles  of  stone  cutting  used  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Eough-hainmered  with  a  tooled  or  cut  margin,  as  shown 
by  diagram  (Fig.  8) ;  Bush-hammered  or  fine-dressed,  as 
shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  4) ;  Droved  Ashlar,  as  shown  by  dia- 
gram (Fig.  5) ;  Chamfered  Eustic,  as  shown  by  diagram 
(Fig.  6) ;  Revealed  Eustic,  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  7) ; 
Eustic  with  a  tooled  margin,  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  8), 
this  applies  to  both  chamfered  rustic  and  revealed  rus- 
tic ;  Eange-work  with  a  rustic  face  laid  in  regular  courses, 
as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  9) ;  Broken  Eange-work,  or  Ean- 
dom  range-work  with  a  rustic  face,  as  shown  by  diagram 
(Fig.  10).  The  last  is  more  principally  used  for  gothic 
buildings,  and  the  best  adapted  for  churches  of  the  early 
or  decorated  gothic  styles.  Another  kind  of  Ashlar, 
which  is  a  medium  between  the  rough-hammered  and  the 
bush-hammered  or  fine-dressed,  is  called  Picked  face  Ash- 
lar. 

There  is  also  another  style  of  cutting  called  the  Vermi- 
culated ;  as  the  term  indicates,  it  represents  the  face  of  a 
stone  attacked  by  worms.  It  should  not  be  introduced 
into  buildings,  because  stones  cut  in  that  style  are  sup- 
posed to  be  rotten  stones. 

Xotice. — The  term  "  bush-hammered "  is  applied  to 
limestone  or  granite  only.  The  limestone  or  granite  work 
is  sometimes  chiselled  vertically  after  being  bush-ham- 
mered, on  costly  buildings. 

Sandstone  is  dressed  and  rubbed.  Limestone  and  gran- 
ite are  also  rubbed  sometimes,,  and  when  of  the  best  qual- 
ity, can  be  polished  almost  as  fine  as  the  best  marbles. 

The  terms  of  other  styles  of  stone  cutting  stated  above 
apply  to  all  kinds  of  building  stones. 


46  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Mortar  Joints. — Should  the  mortar  set  flush  with  the 
face  of  the  stone,  it  is  to  be  raked  out  to  the  depth  of 
half  an  inch  for  pointing,  which  must  be  done  when  the 
stone  work  is  cleaned  off. 

The  joints  should  not  be  more  than  ^  of  an  inch  thick 
for  nice  work. 

Drips  and  Water- Joints. — All  the  cut  stone  projections 
to  have  the  necessary  throatings  and  drips  to  throw 
off  the  water.  The  abutting  joints  of  all  projecting  stone- 
work exposed  to  weather  should  have  water-joints  bevelled 
each  way,  and  the  joints  well  filled  with  cement.  The 
metal  gutters  coming  in  contact  with  stone  cornices  should 
have  flashings  let  into  the  stone  and  cemented  with  iron 
filings  and  linseed  oil. 

Joints  of  Columns. — All  columns,  bed  of  bases,  neck 
of  columns,  and  other  joints,  should  form  a  smooth,  level 
joint,  not  more  than  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  and  sheet-lead 
should  be  used. 

Fluting  of  Shaft  of  Columns  should  be  done  after 
setting,  when  composed  of  many  pieces,  so  as  to  make  it 
more  regular  and  perfect  on  the  whole  height. 

Beds  and  Builds.— The  beds  and  builds  of  all  cut 
stone  work  must  be  cut  full  to  the  square  and  left  free 
from  all  defects.  The  dressing  of  all  stone  to  be  evenly 
done  and  so  true,  that  after  two,  three  or  more  are  laid 
one  above  the  other,  each  surface  shall  be  true  to  the 
face  line. 

Back  of  Stone  Work.— The  back  of  all  the  stone 
work  connected  with  brick-work,  should  be  roughly 
pitched  off  to  lay  evenly  with  the  brickwork.  Whenever 
stone  quoins  are  used  in  brick-work,  each  piece  of  stone 
should  conform  in  height  with  an  even  number  of  bricks 
laid  in,  so  as  to  avoid  cutting  bricks. 

Cleaning  and  Pointing  Stone-work. — All  the  cut  stone 
to  be  washed  perfectly  clean  before  setting.  After  the 
stone-work  is  completed  and  the  building  covered,  the 
stone-work  should  be  cleaned  off  and  pointed. 


STONE   MASONRY.  47 

Floors  of  Porticos  are  usually  laid  in  large  stones 
with  a  perfect  water-proof  joint  made  of  molten  lead. 

Vault  Floors  may  be  of  sawed  limestone,  marble,  til- 
ing, brick,  or  thick  slate,  laid  in  cement  mortar. 

Sidewalks. — The  best  sidewalks  made  are  of  limestone 
or  granite ;  some  others  are  made  of  composition  stone, 
and  brick  with  a  limestone  border  (curb  stone). 

(See  the  different  kinds  of  mortar  for  masonry.) 

Precaution  Against  Accidents. — Care  should  be  taken 
that  some  careless  plumbers  do  not  excavate  under  masonry 
walls,  to  make  their  sewer  pipe  connections,  as  it  occurs 
sometimes.  This  practice,  which  often  causes  cracks  and 
settlements  in  the  walls  should  not  be  tolerated.  The  right 
time  for  making  sewer  pipe  connections  is  before  the  foun- 
dations are  built;  and  if  they  are  not  made  then,  an  open- 
ing arched  over  should  be  provided  for  that  purpose.  The 
architect  or  the  mason  should  never  forget  to  see  that  the 
plumbers  have  always  the  junctions  of  the  pipes  well 
cemented,  so  as  to  prevent  leakage,  that  may  injure  the 
masonry. 

Defects  in  Masonry.— Very  inferior  masonry  is  some- 
times built  against  the  true  principles  stated  above  and  car- 
ried out  by  honest  and  competent  architects  aud  mech- 
anics. The  defects  are  the  following  :  1.  In  the  foundations, 
the  footing  stones  in  the  same  course  are  not  all  of  the  same 
thickness  and  of  the  form  required,  nor  laid  so  as  to  break 
joints  with  those  of  the  course  below,  as  they  should  be. 
These  defects  will  sometimes  cause  cracks  and  settlements 
in  the  upper  structure.  2.  There  is  not  a  sufficient  number 
of  bond  stones  laid  in  the  walls,  and  longitudinal  joints  are 
made  on  a  great  length,  which  are  dangerous.  The  stones 
are  not  laid  in  to  a  solid  consistency,  and  mortar  is  often 
used  only  on  the  outside  edges.  The  interstices  between 
stones  in  the  uncoursed  work  being  not  always  filled  with 
spawls  or  chips  (small  broken  stones)  and  mortar,  large 
holes  are  left  in  the  walls.  These  defects  often  cause  the 


48  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

walls  to  crack,  bulge  outside  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  11) 
and  sometimes  crumble. 

Walls  built  in  this  manner  have  been  seen  split  into  parts 
after  the  buildings  had  fallen  down ;  one  part  hanging  out- 
side, and  the  other  inside,  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  12). 

Owners,  who  build  on  speculation  should  be  as  cautious 
in  intrusting  reputed  honest  and  competent  masons  with 
their  work  as  when  they  put  up  buildings  for  their  own 
use ;  for,  if  the  masonry  be  too  defective,  the  effects  will 
soon  be  apparent;  and  a  building,  however  safe  it  may  be, 
cannot  be  sold  but  at  a  considerable  loss,  when  its  walls 
are  cracked. 

An  other  great  fault  is  to  lay  the  limestone  edgewise,  in- 
stead of  laying  it  in  the  same  direction  or  bed  as  it  stands 
in  the  quarry,  in  all  parts  of  a  building  which  have  to  carry 
heavy  weights.  Stone  laid  edgewise  loses  much  strength ; 
it  cannot  resist  half  as  much  pressure  as  when  laid  on  its 
natural  bed  in  the  building  (flatwise).  It  cracks  vertically 
and  may  crumble  under  a  comparatively  moderate  weight. 
Sand  stone  set  edgeicise  loses  also  much  of  its  strength. 
However,  for  private  buildings  the  stones  are  generally  set 
on  edge,  except  the  bases  resting  on  the  ground,  the  steps, 
door  and  window  sills,  belt  courses,  which  are  usually 
laid  on  their  natural  bed.  For  public  buildings  as  for  pri- 
vate ones,  the  ashlar  or  cut  stone  work  for  fronts  backed 
with  brick  or  stone  masonry  is  generally  .set  edgewise,  at 
least  from  the  top  of  base  or  level  of  first  story  floor. 
Cornices  and  all  other  projecting  parts  and  quoins  are  usu- 
ally set  on  their  natural  led  ;  the  stones  for  bases  from  the 
line  of  the  ground  to  the  level  of  the  first  story  floor,  at 
least  for  public  buildings,  are  generally  set  on  their  nat- 
ural bed  also.  Columns  and  pilasters,  except  when  made 
in  many  pieces  are  of  course,  set  edgewise  ;  but  their  bases 
are  laid  on  their  natural  beds. 

Great  frauds  are  reported  to  be  perpetrated  sometimes 
by  setting  the  stone  edgewise  instead  of  flatwise  (or  its  nat- 


STONE   MASONRY.  49 

ural  bed)  as  illustrated  by  diagrams  (Figs.  13  and  14),  either 
when  strength  requires  the  stone  to  be  so  laid,  or  when 
stone  set  edgewise  is  sufficiently  strong;  in  the, latter  case 
the  specifications  are  exaggerated  so  as  to  lead  some  mech- 
anics astray  in  their  estimates,  in  order  to  defeat  them  in 
the  competition  and  yet  secure  an  opportunity  of  making 
an  immense  pront^viz: 

Remark  first,  that  the  cut  stone  is  estimated  at  per 
cubic  foot.  Xow,  suppose  that  pieces  such  as  bases, 
quoins,  etc.,  of  any  dimensions— say  the  dimension  of  that 
represented  by  diagram  (Fig.  13),  are  specified  to  be  set  on 
their  natural  bed,  estimated  upon  and  contracted  for ;  see 
the  amount  of  cubic  feet  in  this  piece  :  4  ft.  long  by  2  ft. 
deep  in  the  wall  =  8  ft.  by  1  ft.  G  in.  high  =  12  ft.  cubic,  of 
stone. 

Remar'k  a/so,  that  we  have  to  go  about  20  or  22  inches 
deep  in  the  quarry  to  procure  a  piece  of  this  thickness 
when  cut  and  laid,  which  is  expensive  and  sometimes  diffi- 
cult. 

Then,  some  architects  and  mechanics  may  deviate  from 
the  contract  (this  has  been  sometimes  practiced),  by  re- 
ducing the  depth  of  each  piece  in  the  wall,  as  shown  by 
diagram  (Fig.  14),  which  represents  a  stone  of  the  same 
surface  as  diagram  (Fig.  13),  but  1  foot  less  in  depth ;  and 
this  is  set  edgewise,  which  may  crack  vertically  after  a 
short  time,  as  shown  by  the  diagram. 

In  committing  such  a  fraud f  they  produce  the  same  ex- 
ternal effect  with  the  iceak  stone  (Fig.  14),  as  they  would 
with  the  strong  stone  (Fig.  13),  and  no  inexperienced  persons 
can  detect  it. 

Now,  let  us  'see  the  amount  made  through  this  daring 
robbery :  Stone  (Fig.  13)  contracted  for  contains  12  cubic 
feet  as  stated  above,  and  stone  (Fig.  14)  which  is  used, 
being  of  the  same  surface,  but  1  ft.  less  in  depth,  that  is  to 
say  1  ft.  instead  of  2  ft.  deep,  has  only  6  cubic  feet.  There- 
fore one-half  of  the  cut  stone  is  saved,  besides  much  labor, 


50  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

as  we  have  to  go  only  14  or  35  inches  deep  in  the  quarry 
to  procure  a  piece  of  1  foot  deep  laid  in  the  wall  edgewise. 

Frauds  have  been  perpetrated  in  a  larger  proportion 
than  this  illustration.  As  a  witness  and  a  man  of  many 
years'  experience,  I  may  know  and  have  been  told  many 
times  that  stone  6  or  5  inches  instead  of  30  inches  deep  in 
the  wall  has  been  used  contrarily  to  the  contract. 

Many  thousand  dollars  may  have  often  been  acquired  in 
such  illegitimate  ways  and  means,  only  in  the  cut  stone 
work  laid  from  the  level  of  the  ground  to  that  of  the  first 
story  floor,  and  the  owners  or  the  public  who  were  only  at- 
tracted by  the  appearance  of  the  surface,  never  suspected 
of  being  so  defrauded. 

Other  frauds  reported  to  be  perpetrated  in  the  stone 
work  by  deviating  from  the  plans,  specifications  and  the 
contract  are  the  following:  1.  Ordinary  rubble  masonry 
or  uncoursed  ivork  is  sometimes  built  instead  of  best  kind 
or  coursed  work.  (Both  kinds  are  described  above).  2.  A 
stone  of  an  inferior  quality  is  used  for  the  best.  3.  To  re- 
duce the  thickness  of  walls,  the  quantity  of  cut  stone, 
change  the  style  of  cutting  and  the  members  of  molded 
work,  as  stated  already  in  the  first  part  of  this  GUIDE. 

(See  Mortars). 


BRICK,   BRICKLAYING,   TILING,    SEWERS,   ETC.  51 


BRICK  AND  BRICKLAYING,  TILING, 
SEWERS,  ETC. 


The  best  brick  earth  is  composed  of  pure  clay  and  sand, 
deprived  of  pebbles  of  every*  kind,  but  particularly  of 
those  containing  lime  and  pyritous  or  other  metallic  sub- 
stances. The  earth  is  well  tempered  and  squeezed  into  a 
mold  ;  and  when  so  formed,  bricks  are  stacked  to  dry  in 
the  sun,  and  finally  burnt  to  a  proper  degree  of  hardness 
in  a  clamp  or  kiln.  Brick  is  one  of  the  most  important, 
and  the  very  best,  fire-proof  building  material. 

The  bricks  generally  used  are  Hydraulic  7Ve.ss  or  stock 
brick  ;  and  other  machine  or  hand-made  brick.  Both  are 
classed  or  graded  in  the  same  order,  viz :  red  and  hard, 
dark  red  and  Uf/ht  red. 

The. ordinary  red  and  hard  consists  of  hard,  light,  and 
dark  red. 

rtfrictl)/  hard  and  red  consists  of  dark  red  and  hard. 

There  is  also  the  merchantable  brick,  which  is  partly 
salmon  and  partly  red  and  hard.  The  salmon  is  a  soft 
brick,  and  used  only  for  some  inside  work.  Xo  soft  brick 
that  can  soon  dissolve  in  water  should  be  allowed  in  the 
walls.  In  ordinary  houses  the  merchantable  brick  is  used 
none  but  red  and  hard  of  uniform  color  being  laid  exter- 
nally. 

All  walls  intended  to  support  heavy  weights ;  the  backing 
of  stone  fronts ;  chimney-tops,  and  all  work  exposed  to  damp- 
ness, water  and  the  weather,  should  be  built  exclusively 
of  hard  bricks  laid  in  cement  mortar.  The  top  of  fire- 
walls, or  other  walls  exposed  to  the  weather  should  also 
be  laid  with  hard  brick  in  cement  mortar,  about  18  or  24 
inches  down  below  the  surface.  !Xo  brickwork  should  be 


52  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDK. 

started  level  with  the  ground  externally  (as  it  is  often 
practiced) ;  for  brick  is  a  great  conductor  of  dampness, 
both  up  and  sideways,  and  does  not  resist  long  the  effects 
of  the  alternate  action  of  dryness  and  moisture.  Brick 
should  be  laid  at  least  12  or  15  inches  above  the  level  of 
the  soil.  All  bricks  should  be  thoroughly  wetted 
immediately  before  being  set  in,  except  in  freezing 
weather  ;  then  they  should  be  kept  dry.  The  bricks  should 
be  entirely  cleaned  out  of  dirt  and  dust,  because  mortar 
will  not  adhere  well  to  any  but  clean  bricks.  All  the  walls 
should  be  carried  up  straight  to  a  line  and  plumb, 

Ifyre-bricki  which  can  sustain  a  very  high  degree  of  heat, 
is  used  for  the  facing  of  ovens,  furnaces,  lire-places,  etc. 

Bond. — There  are  four  different  ways  of  connecting  the 
bricks  together  in  walls  : 

1st.  English  bond  is  a  disposition  of  bricks  in  a  wall  (ex- 
cept at  the  quoins)  wherein  the  courses  are  alternately 
composed  of  headers  and  stretchers,  as  shown  by  diagram 
(Fig.  15).  This  is  a  very  strong  bond. 

2nd.  Flemish  bond,  is  that  wherein  the  same  course  con- 
sists alternately  of  headers  and  stretchers,  and  is  equally  as 
good  as  English  bond  except  at  the  angles.  See  diagram 
(Fig.  16). 

Two.  American  Methods  of  Bond. — In  the  first  every 
brick  is  a  stretcher  in  all  courses  laid  externally  (except  at 
the  quoins),  as  shown  by  diagram  (Fig.  17).  At  every  7th, 
6th  or  5th  course,  the  facing  bricks  are  chipped  on  the  in- 
side at  each  corner,  so  as  to  allow  some  of  the  backing 
bricks  set  on  the  same  level  diagonally  to  lap  over  the 
facing  course  below,  in  order  to  form  a  bond.  This  bond, 
which  is  used  principally  for  nice  stock -brick  fronts,  is 
rather  weak,  and  should  not  be  used  when  strength  is  re- 
quired to  an  eminent  degree. 

In  the  second,  the  courses  are  laid  in  stretchers,  with  the 
exception  of  every  5th,  6th,  or  7th  course  which  is  laid  in 
headers,  or  alternately  with  a  header  and  a  stretcher;  the  last 


way  of  the  second  method  is  very  weak,  aud  should  be  used 
only  for  cheap  and  light  houses  one-story  high. 

Brick-Xogging  is  a  method  of  constructing  a  wall  or  par- 
tition with  a  row  of  posts  3  or  4  feet  apart,  whose  spaces 
are  filled  up  with  a  few  plates  of  wood  and  brick  work  be- 
tween. It  is  generally  the  width  of  a  brick  in  thickness, 
and  the  bricks  and  timber  are  flush. 

Half -brick  Partition. — A  half-brick  partition  built  in  com- 
mon mortar  is  adopted  in  a  great  many  lodging-houses  of 
the  cities  of  England,  with  an  occasional  hoop-iron  bond. 
These  are  built  four,  five,  and  six  stories  in  height ;  the 
apartments  being  small,  only  12  ft.  long,  9  ft.  wide,  aud  from 
9  ft.  to  9  ft.  6  in.  in  height.  This  kind  of  partition  could  be 
safely  introduced  for  larger  apartments  of  higher  stories, 
if  it  is  built  of  well-formed  hard  brick  laid  in  good  cement 
mortar. 

Tiles  laid  in  cement  with  plugs  to  receive  the  dressings, 
make  a  good  partition,  and  take  less  room  than  a  wall  8J 
inches  thick. 

Hollow-walls  are  often  built,  consisting  of  an  outside- wall 
8^  or  12f  inches  thick,  2  inches  space,  and  4  inches  inside- 
lining,  tied  with  the  outside  wall  by  means  of  cross-bricks 
laid  at  every  two  or  three  courses  vertically,  and  about 
every  two  feet  horizontally. 

Fire-proof  Ceilings  are  made  of  either  one  brick  or  one- 
half-brick  arches,  resting  at  each  side  on  iron  beams  laid 
about  four  feet  apart,  the  bricks  to  be  set  in  cement  mortar, 

Anchors. — Brick  walls  are  anchored  to  floors  and  roofs 
with  strong  iron  anchors. 

Paving  \vith  brick  is  done  over  a  4  or  6  inch  layer  of  gravel 
or  sand,  which  should  be  free  from  clay,  and  well  consoli- 
dated. The  ground  should  be  well  graded  off  before  the 
work  is  commenced.  The  bricks  are  laid  either  flatwise  or 
edgewise.  When  the  paving  is  done,  if  the  joints  have  not- 
been  made  in  mortar,  sand  is  brushed  into  them. 


54  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Tiling  of  clay  or  marble  is  laid  on  a  coat  of  cement  mor- 
tar about  1  inch  thick. 

Terra- Gotta  made  of  clay  and  burnt,  is  used  for  chimney 
tops  on  houses.  There  are  two  kinds  of  chimney  flue-pipe: 
straight  and  round ;  these  flues  are  made  from  a  mixture  of 
pure  fire-clay  and  free  silica ;  they  do  not  rust  or  decay. 
Chimney  thimbles,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9  in.,  of  various  lengths. 

Drainage  is  divided  in  three  classes :  Drains,  Sewers, 
and  Culverts. 

Drains  are  the  small  courses  leading  from  one  or  many 
locations,  to  a  sewer. 

Seivers  are  courses  leading  from  a  series  of  locations. 
Culverts  receive  the  discharge  of  sewers.  In  culverts  less 
than  6  feet  in  depth  inside,  the  brick- work  should  be  8J 
inches  or  1  brick  thick ;  if  from  6  ft.  to  9  ft.  in  depth,  it 
should  be  12|  inches  or  1J  brick  thick.  The  oval  and  egg 
form  are  the  best  for  culverts.  Their  inclination  should 
not  be  less  than  9  inches  in  100  feet,  when  possible,  al- 
though sometimes  they  fall  only  6  or  7  inches  in  that 
length. 

Drain-pipes,  made  of  stoneware,  are  from  3  to  30  inches 
diameter  bore  (inside),  in  parts  of  2  feet  long  to  the  socket ; 
they  should  be  inclined  about  f  or  i  inch  to  the  foot;  and 
their  junctions  should  be  made  perfectly  water-tight  with 
the  best  pure  cement,  and  afterwards  the  pipes  should  be 
filled  around  to  3  or  4  inches  high  with  a  course  of  sand. 

Joints.  The  joints  are  of  the  following  various  thick- 
nesses :  |,  T%,  £,  f,  4-,  |  of  an  inch.  They  should  not  be 
more  than  f  inch  thick  for  the  strongest  work,  nor  exceed 
|  for  common  work.  The  brick  work  loses  much  of  its 
resisting  power  when  laid  in  very  thick  joints. 

Steel-joint. — The  stock-brick  which  is  used  only  for  nice 
fronts  is  laid  in  joints  of  from  £  to  -^  of  an  inch  thick, 
drawn  with  the  steel  jointer. 

8 truck-jo  int. — The  struck-joint  is  drawn  by  the  point  of 
the  trowel, 


BRICK,  BRICKLAYING,  TILItfG,   SEWERS,  ETC.          oo 

Flush-joint. — The  flush-joint  is  drawn  even  with  the  face 
of  the  brick,  but  the  top  can  be  trimmed  with  the  point. of 
the  trowel ;  it  is  the  best  joint  and  most  durable,  as  water 
can  not  go  in  and  break  it. 

Remarks  about  Joints. — All  the  joints,  both  horizontally 
and  vertically  should  be  thoroughly  filled  with  mortar  for 
good  work ;  every  course  is  to  be  flushed  with  mortar,  and 
the  brick  slid  into  position,  thus  receiving  a  coat  on  all 
faces ;  no  empty  joints  are  left  in  the  best  kind  of  brick- 
work. For  surfaces  intended  to  be  plastered,  the  joints 
should  either  be  left  open  or  cut  out  rough,  so  as  to  give  a 
strong  hold  to  the  first  coat  of  plastering. 

Grouting. — The  work  in  thick  walls  should  be  grouted 
thoroughly  with  a  kind  of  liquid  mortar  at  every  course, 
when  strength  is  required  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Arches,  to  openings,  etc.,  should  be  turned  with  strong 
hard  brick,  and  molded  arch  brick  should  be  used  for  nice 
and  strong  work. 

Drains  or  Seicers,  passing  through  or  along  the  walls 
should  be  arched  over  with  brick,  in  the  best  work. 

Bed-plates,,  to  be  set  perfectly  level,  and  true  with  the 
face  of  the  brick  to  receive  the  ends  of  joists,  beams  and 
girders  for  each  story. 

Smoke-stacks  and  Flues. — Smoke  stacks  for  boilers  may 
have  an  inside  lining  of  brick  tile  with  2  inches  of  air  space 
between  tile  and  brickwork ;  the  tile  to  be  securely  fast- 
ened to  the  brick  wall  with  galvanized  iron  anchors.  The 
smoke  flues  should  be  coated  with  cement  mortar  or  wash, 
to  the  top  of  chimney  shaft. 

Foiti  Air  Flues. — The  walls  of  foul  air  or  ventilating  flues 
should  have  the  inside  joints  struck  smooth,  pargeted  with 
cement,  and  floated  to  an  even  surface  with  a  brush.  The 
wash  should  be  made  out  of  the  best  cement  and  fine  sand,, 
and  put  on  at  the  same  time  the  bricks  are  laid,  in  order 
to  set  properly  on  the  damp  brick  work,  to  be  not  less 
than  of  an  inch  thick. 


of)  BUILDING  SAF E-GUIDE, 

Cisterns,  built  of  brick  should  be  plastered  inside  with 
two  or  three  coats  of  hydraulic  cement.  When  the  walls 
are  laid,  two  inches  thick  of  cement  should  be  put  in  be- 
tween earth  and  brick,  so  as  to  prevent  any  water  from 
penetrating  through  the  walls  and  damaging  the  plastering 
inside.  To  have  the  proper  overflow  to  sewer,  and  a  trap 
to  prevent  the  return  of  foul  air  from  the  sewer  to  the  cis- 
tern. The  cisterns  should  be  either  domed  or  arched,  with 
a  cast  iron  neck  and  cover  in  the  center,  or  covered  with 
stone  slabs,  slates  or  brick  arches  resting  on  iron  beams ; 
the  joints  should  be  made  perfectly  tight  so  as  to  prevent 
dust  from  falling  in. 

Vaults. — Vaults  are  either  built  with  hollow  walls,  or 
ventilated  with  a  five  inch  hollow  tile ;  the  openings  being 
connected  with  ventilating  flues,  and  by  introducing  a  cur- 
rent of  air  on  all  sides,  and  through  the  floors  and  ceilings, 
so  as  to  keep  the  vaults  free  from  dampness.  Vaults  have 
sometimes  heating  flues  opening  inside.  When  the  vaults 
are  arched  over,  instead  of  being  ceiled  with  iron  beams 
and  brick  arches  between,  the  side  walls  are  sometimes 
secured  by  means  of  wrought  iron  bolts  to  resist  the  thrust 
of  the  arch,  and  passing  across  the  space  over  head,  gen- 
erally on  the  level  of  the  springing  of  the  arch. 

Covering  and  Cleaning  Walls. -All  walls  should  be  covered 
and  thoroughly  protected  at  all  times  from  the  weather. 
When  the  work  is  completed,  the  outside  walls  should  be 
cleaned  off  and  left  free  from  any  defects. 

Well-burnt  bricks  will  ring  when  two  are  struck  together. 

Thickness  of  Walls. 

.     A  wall    4J  inches  thick  =  \  brick 

81  «  ,    "  S3'  J  " 

U  ]  -i :;  u  u  1  1       u 

J  -  4  '  '-' 

u  i  r  i  u  u          *£         u 

u  «>i  i  u  a          91      a 

"         25}         u  "         =  3      " 

(See  Mortars). 


BRICK.'BRICKLAYING,  TILING,  SEWERS,  ETC.       ."»: 

The  dimensions  of  brick  vary  so  much,  that  a  table  of  the 
exact  sizes  of  bricks  of  all  the  various  manufactures  be- 
comes impracticable.  The  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Balti- 
more and  Wilmington  front  press  brick,  is  from  8^  to  8J 
inches  long,  by  from  4  to  4^  inches  wide,  by  2f  inches 
thick. 

Notice. — Owners.,  should  do  well  to  «se  entirely  hard 
brick  in  good  houses  instead  of  that  merchantable  brick, 
(\  salmon  or  soft  brick).  It  costs  only  very  little  more  a 
thousand,  and  makes  much  stronger  work. 

Spring  and  Fall  are  the  best  seasons  to  do  brick  masonry. 

The  frauds  reported  to  be  perpetrated  sometimes  in 
brick  work  by  deviating  from  the  plans,  specifications,  and 
the  contract,  are  the  following: 

An  inferior  quality  of  brick  is  used;  the  walls  are  built 
thinner  than  figured  on  the  plans  and  in  the  specifications 
submitted  to  competing  mechanics;  the  work  is  not  done 
in  a  substantial  manner ;  the  joints  are  made  too  thick,  and 
the  vertical  joints  are  not  filled  with  mortar. 


BtftLDTNG  SAFE-G-TTTDM. 


PLASTERING. 


Lathing. — All  stud  or  wooden  partitions,  furred-walls 
and  ceilings,  soffits  of  stairs,  etc.,  are  usually  lathed  with 
sawed  white  pine  laths  4  feet  long,  and  about  1J  inches  wide 
by  J  inch  thick,  nailed  up  horizontally  on  the  stud,  partitions 
and  furrings,  and  should  not  be  laid  less  than  f  or  J  inch 
apart  to  give  a  strong  key  to  the  mortar.  Laths  1  inch 
wide  are  the  best,  and  for  first-class  work  they  are  laid  so 
that  each  one  breaks  joint  with  the  other.  The  work  is 
very  good  also  when  the  joints  are  broken  at  every  fourth 
or  fifth  lath.  The  most  durable  laths  are  made  of  cedar;  but 
being  too  expensive,  they  are  not  much  used.  Iron  laths 
are  employed  for  ceilings  of  fire-proof  buildings,  when  the 
plastering  is  not  put  on  the  brick  arches.  Before  being 
laid,  they  are  thoroughly  wetted  with  lime-water  to  be  pre- 
served from  rust. 

Weil  ing  and  cleaning. — Before  the  brick  walls  are  plas- 
tered, their  surface  should  be  thoroughly  wetted,  brushed 
or  broomed  with  water  for  removing  the  dust  off  and  pre- 
paring the  brick  to  receive  the  first  coat  of  mortar. 

Plastering. — The  plastering  in  the  interior  of  buildings, 
whether  done  on  wooden  partitions,  ceilings,  brick  or  stone 
walls,  consists  of  three  coats  of  mortar  for  the  best  kind 
of  work,  although  two  coats  only  are  often  put  on  brick 
walls. 

First  Coat. — The  first  coat,  which  is  rough  and  called  the 
scratched  coat,  is  laid  in  good  mortar  usually  composed  of 
1  part  of  quick-lime,  3  parts  of  sand,  and  |  part  of  cow- 
hair,  which  is  used  to  render  the  mortar  more  cohesive  and 
less  liable  to  split  off.  (This  is  often  the  only  coat  used 
iu  rude  buildings  and  cellars,)  After  this  coat  has  slightly 


PLASTERING.  59 

dried,  it  is  deeply  scratched  with  a  pointed  stick  or  a  lath, 
in  diagonal  lines  from  1  to  2  inches  apart  running*  across 
each  other:  this  is  intended  to  give  a  strong  hold  to  .the 
second  coat. 

Second  Coat. — The  second  coat  called  the  brown  coat  may 
be  put  on  with  the  same  kind  of  mortar ;  but  for  this  the 
proportion  of  hair  'may  be  slightly  diminished.  Before  it 
has  dried  hard,  it  should  always  be  roughed  over  by  a 
broom,  or  floated,  to  render  the  third  coat  more  adhesive 
to  it. 

Third  Coat. — The  third  coat  contains  no  hair,  and  is  either 
of  stucco,  or  guage  stuff  (hard  finish). 

Stucco  is  a  gray  finish  composed  of  1  part  of  fine- stuff  or 
pure  lime-putty,  and  from  2  to  3  parts  of  sand ;  it  is  the  best 
finish  for  walls  proposed  to  be  painted  in  oil,  or  papered. 

Fine-stuff  is  pure  lime  putty.  Lump  lime  is  slacked  to  a 
thick  paste  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  diluted  to  the 
consistency  of  cream;  it  afterwards  hardens  by  evapora- 
tion to  its  required  consistency. 

Skim  or  Slipped  Coat. — If  the  putty  is  mixed  only  with  a 
little  sand,  it  is  called  skim  or  slipped  coat,  instead  of  fine- 
stvff,  being  only  the  smoothing  off  of  a  brown  coat,  so  as 
to  make  the  surface  more  even ;  for  cheap  buildings  this 
finish  is  good  enough  when  the  surface  is  intended  to  be 
painted  or  papered. 

Guage-stvff  or  Hard-finish,  consists  of  1  measure  of  plas- 
ter-paris  to  2  or  3  measures  of  fine-stuff.  The  plaster-paris 
is  used  to  hasten  the  hardening,  and  works  easier  than 
stucco.  This  finish  is  generally  adopted.  For  the  best 
work  a  small  quantity  of  fine,  clean,  sharp  sand,  washed 
through  a  sieve,  should  be  mixed  in  the  hard  finish  stuff, 
to  produce  a  smoother  and  firmer  polished  surface. 

Two-coat  work. — Sometimes,  for  economy,  only  two  coats 
of  plastering  are  put  on  ceilings  and  stud,  partitions.  For 
this  kind  of  work,  as  for  three  coat  work,  the  first  coat  is 
of  the  same  kind  of  hair  mortar,  and  after  having  been 


00  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

scratched,  it  is  covered  by  the  finishing  coat.  This  kind 
of  plastering  is  very  poor;  it  will  soon  crack  and  peel  off. 

Experience  teaches  that  it  is  true  economy  to  have  always 
three  coats  of  plastering,  even  for  cheap  houses. 

Materials. — The  quality  of  plastering  depends  consider- 
ably on  that  of  the  sand  used ;  the  best  is  clean,  sharp 
river-sand,  and  should  always  be  used,  if  possible,  for  good 
work,  and  in  the  proportions  of  2  parts  of  coarse,  and  1 
part  of  fine.  White  sand  is  not  so  good  as  river  sand ;  the 
former  cannot  make  so  strong  work  as  the  latter,  and  will 
cause  the  plastering  to  turn  yellow  after  a  short  time.  The 
lime  should  be  fresh  burned,  and  no  air-slacked  lime  should 
be  allowed  in  good  work.  The  hair  should  be  fresh-slaugh- 
tered winter-killed  long  hair. 

Best  work.— The  best  kind  of  plastering  can  be  made 
when  the  first  and  second  coats  are  composed  of  1  part  of 
good  cement  and  3  parts  of  ordinary  mortar,  especially  if 
the  sand  be  washed  well  before  being  used  in  the  mortal- 

Granulated  work. — Xice  imitation  of  some  kind  of  stone 
can  be  made  with  good  effect,  by  putting  on  only  two  coats 
of  plaster  mixed  with  fine  clean  bright  gravel  instead  of 
the  sand.  This  kind  of  work  is  most  suitable  for  churches, 
halls,  station-houses,  etc. 

Manner  of  Doing  the  Work. — All  the  ceilings  are  to  be 
made  true  and  straight;  the  walls  and  angles  true  and 
plumb ;  the  ceilings  should  be  first  coated  by  going  twice 
over  them  at  once  :  the  first  time  across  the  laths,  and  af- 
terwards, lengthwise;  the  second  coat  is  put  on  light,  and 
the  finish  is  of  its  usual  thickness. 

ticreeding. — In  order  to  prevent  or  rectify  all  irregular- 
ities and  undulations  of  the  plastered  surfaces  on  all  brick 
or  stone  walls,  (and  sometimes  on  wooden  partitions)  which 
are  always  uneven  and  out  of  a  perfect  line,  Screeding 
must  be  employed  as  a  guide :  Screeds  are  strips  of  the 
same  mortar  used,  about  6  or  8  inches  wide,  to  be  laid  on 
the  first  coat  at  every  4  or  5  feet  all  around  the  room  (or 


PLASTERING.  61 

nails  may  be  driven  to  a  perfect  straight  line  for  that  pur- 
pose). They  have  to  project  to  the  intended  face  of  the 
second  coat,  being  straightened  both  horizontally  and  ver- 
tically by  means  of  the  straight  edge  and  plumb  line.  When 
they  are  dried,  the  inter-spaces  are  filled  with  the  second 
coat  brought  flush  with  the  face  of  the  screeds. 

Each  coat  should  be  hand-floated  to  become  firm  and 
strong;  the  finishing  coat  is  polished  with  the  trowel,  the 
hand-float  and  the  brush.  When  the  plastering  is  not  in- 
tended to  be  painted  or  papered,  a  float  of  cork  is  used 
for  finer  polishing.  In  no  case  should  a  subsequent  coat 
be  put  on  before  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  the 
precedent  one  to  become  thoroughly  dry.  The  scratched 
coat  should  be  well  wetted  with  a  sponge  before  applying 
the  second  one.  The  unworkmanlike  manner  of  doing 
plastering  by  following  one  coat  after  the  other  before 
moving  the  scaffold  should  not  be  allowed  on  the  best  kind 
of  work.  The  mortar  used  for  plastering  in  first  and  sec-, 
ond  coats  should  be  prepared  at  least  3  or  4  days  before 
being  used,  and  the  water  added  in  small  quantity  in  tem- 
pering it  up.  All  the  mortar  should  be  kept  under  cover. 

Pugging. — The  pugging  or  floor  deafening  over  brick 
arches  in  fire-proof  buildings  or  for  wooden  floors,  is  com- 
posed of  small  pieces  of  broken  brick,  stone  and  coarse 
mortar,  thoroughly  mixed  with  plaster  or  water  lime. 
Cinders  from  blacksmiths'  shops  and  foundries  mixed  with 
hair  mortar  are  excellent,  and  lighter  than  the  former 
mode. 

Cornices  and  Centre-pieces  are  of  sizes  proportioned  to 
the  dimensions  of  the  apartments  or  rooms  and  the  height 
of  stories;  they  are  either  plain,  molded  or  ornamental. 
All  the  ornamental  work  should  be  executed  in  bold  relief, 
clear  cut,  and  the  sinkage  free  and  sharp.  The  cornices 
and  coves  should  be  formed  as  light  as  possible,  for  the 
plaster  used  for  that  purpose  is  heavy.  When  cornices  of 
large  dimensions  are  run,  icood  or  metal  bracketing  must  be 


62  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

provided,  and  on  this  the  plastering  is  formed.  The  work 
is  run  with  wooden  molds,  having  zinc  or  copper  edges, 
to  give  the  general  outline  of  the  cornice.  The  enrich- 
ments are  cast  in  plaster-paris,  and  afterwards  fixed  with 
the  same  material  and  firmly  secured  with  screws  or  other 
means. 

Thickness  of  Plastering. — In  the  best  work,  the  first 
coat  is  from  f  to  \  inch  thick  (exclusive  of  the  thickness  of 
laths) ;  the  second  \  to  f  of  an  inch  thick ;  the  third  or  fin- 
ish, about  \  inch  in  thickness.  On  even  surfaces  the  three 
coats  should  not  be  less  than  J  of  an  inch  thick,  and  with 
the  lath  \\  inch  in  thickness.  Plastering  £  inch  thick 
makes  fair  work  ;  but  under  this,  it  is  very  poor  (exclusive 
of  the  lath). 

The  frauds  reported  to  be  perpetrated  sometimes  in 
plastering,  by  deviating  from  the  specifications  and  the 
contract  are  the  following: 

Very  inferior  work  throughout  a  building  is  done  instead 
of  good  or  best  quality ;  common  sand  and  air-slacked 
lime  may  be  used  in  place  of  good  or  best  materials ;  sap- 
wood  laths  are  often  used,  and  laid  on  carelessly  and  too 
close  together;  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hair  is  not  put  in 
the  mortar ;  the  necessary  length  of  time  is  not  spent  in 
working  on  each  coat ;  a  subsequent  coat  is  put  on  before 
the  previous  one  is  dry.  Some  of  these  defects  make  the 
plastering  crack  and  peel  off. 

Again,  two  coats  may  be  put  on  instead  of  three  coats ; 
to  save  material,  each  coat  may  be  laid  much  too  thin ; 
the  finishing  coat,  which  ought  not  to  be  less  than  \  inch 
thick,  is  not  much  better  in  some  places  than  lime  wash. 
The  size  and  style  of  cornices,  centre-pieces  and  ornaments 
may  be  reduced  considerably. 

It  is  also  reported  that  in  some  buildings,  all  the  cor- 
nices around  ceilings,  centre-pieces  and  ornaments,  after 
after  having  been  contracted  for  at  first  with  the  plain 
plastering  for  a  certain  sum,  may  have  been  either  omitted 


63 

entirely,  or  charged  again  as  extra  work,  and  of  course 
paid  twice  by  the  owners,  who,  having  not  paid  a  sufficient 
attention  to  the  specifications,  never  had  any  idea  of  being 
so  defrauded. 

MaMe  Imitation. — Xice  imitation  of  marble  of  any  color 
can  be  produced  in  plastering  with  stucco,  in  the  interior  of 
buildings.  There  are  two  sorts  of  stuccos  :  those  made  of 
limes,  and  those  made  of  plaster.  The  former  has  already 
been  described ;  its  color  being  too  disagreeable  to  the  eye, 
it  is  not  used  for  ornamental  decorations.  The  latter  is  made 
of  lime,  mixed  with  chalk,  plaster,  calcareous  powder,  and 
other  substances ;  it  produces  in  a  short  time  a  solid  sur- 
face, which  may  be  colored,  painted,  and  polished  so  per- 
fect, as  to  resemble  polished  surfaces  of  marble. 

In  Italy,  stuccos  are  executed  in  three  coats  ;  the  first  is 
very  coarse ;  the  second  is  much  finer,  and  contains  more 
lime.  The  last  consists  of  rich  lime,  which  has  been  slacked 
and  run  through  a  very  fine  sieve ;  it  stands  from  four  to 
five  months,  so  that  every  particle  can  be  reduced  to  a  hy- 
drate. When  the  lime  cannot  be  kept  for  that  length  of 
time,  the  slacking  is  helped  by  beating  it  up.  Gypsum 
(plaster  of  Paris)  and  alabaster  are  used,  when  great  per- 
fection is  required ;  (powder  of  Italian  marble  is  sometimes 
employed.)  It  is  colored  by  mixing  with  the  lime  metallic 
oxides,  etc.,  such  as  required.  The  excellence  and  beauty 
of  the  work  depend  on  the  care  taken  in  imitating  the 
effects  of  the  natural  marbles.  When  plaster  is  employed 
instead  of  lime,  it  is  guaged  with  lukewarm  water,  in  which 
size  or  gum  has  been  dissolved,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  pores 
to  give  more  consistency,  and  make  it  capable. of  receiving 
a  better  polish.  Any  of  the  colors  used,  is  dissolved  in  the 
ttlze  water.  When  the  work  has  become  dry,  the  surface 
is  rubbed  with  grit  stone,  and  polished  up  with  rubbers  in 
the  same  way  as  marbles.  The  thickness  of  a  coat  of  this 
stucco  varies  from  1  to  J  of  an  inch. 

Carton-pier  re  and  Papier-mache. — In  Europe,  and  in  France 


64  BUILDING  SAFE-&UIDE. 

more  principally,  ornaments  made  of  carton-pierre  and 
papier-mache  are  very  much  used  instead  of  plaster  or  other 
kinds  of  decoration.  The  former  is  composed  of  whiting 
(same  kind  as  used  for  glazier's  putty)  and  glue  (very  little 
glue).  Papier-mache  is  any  kind  of  rotten  paper  (rendered 
rotten  with  acids)  mixed  with  a  little  whiting  and  glue 
squeezed  into  a  mold.  These  compositions  are  light ;  and 
ornaments  of  all  sorts,  such  as  flowers,  leaves,  center- 
pieces, brackets,  etc.,  are  made  of  them.  They  can  be  fixed 
to  walls  or  ceilings  with  screws  more  safely  than  ornaments 
made  of  plaster.  They  are  used  in  some  of  the  finest 
buildings.  The  interior  of  the  State  Capitol  at  Springfield, 
Illinois,  has  been  partly  decorated  with  these  two  kinds  of 
composition. 

Method  of  using  Hydraulic  Cement  for  fronts  of  buildings. 
—For  old  buildings,  clean  off  all  the  old  mortar  or  oil  mas- 
tic; rake  the  joints  at  least  half-inch  deep;  wash  the  sur- 
face well  with  lime-water  to  remove  the  oil,  as  cement  will 
not  adhere  to  oil  work.  For  first-class  work,  the  surface 
of  the  brick  work  should  be  hacked,  but  it  is  a  very  expen- 
sive and  tedious  work.  Use  New  York  Eosendale,  or 
Portland  cements,  and  the  best  river  sand.  After  the  sand 
has  been  well  washed  in  a  tub  of  clean  water,  to  separate 
the  clay  therefrom,  2  measures  of  the  clean  and  sharp  sand 
which  is  left,  are  to  be  mixed  with  1  measure  of  cement. 
Two  coats  are  to  be  put  on.  The  first  should  be  a  scratched 
coat,  as  for  inside  work.  The  surface  of  the  wall  must  be 
well  saturated  with  water  before  the  cement  is  applied. 

In  hot  weather,  sprinkle  the  front  with  water,  after  the 
cement  is  put  on,  two  or  three  times  a  week  for  about  two 
weeks. 

If  sugar  or  molasses  is  added  to  the  water  for  mixing 
the  plaster,  in  proportion  of  1  Ib  to  8  gallons  of  water  for 
the  first  coat,  and  1  Ib  to  2  gallons  of  water  for  the  sec- 
ond coat,  it  is  said  to  improve  greatly  the  quality  of  the 
plaster. 


WOOD,   TIMBER,    ETC.  65 

Imitation. — Nice  imitation  of  granite  can  be  made  on 
fronts  according  to  the  following  process :  After  the  sec- 
ond or  smooth  coat  of  plaster  is  dry,  it  should  receive  one 
or  two  coats  of  lime-wash,  with  a  light  tint  of  amber,  ochre 
or  red,  etc.  Before  this  is  dry  a  wash  of  lime  and  mineral 
black  is  to  be  sprinkled  upon  from  a  flat  brush,  for  imit- 
ating the  spots  of  granite.  After  the  whole  is  dry,  the 
joints,  both  horizontally  and  vertically,  are  drawn  perfectly 
by  a  brush  and  the  same  black- wash,  with  the  assistance  of 
a  long  straight  edge. 


WOOD,  TIMBER,  ETC. 


The  kinds  of  wood  most  generally  used  in  buildings,  are 
White  and  Yellow  Pine,  Oak,  and  Black  Walnut ;  some 
other  kinds,  such  as  Cedar,  Spruce,  Elm,  Ash,  Chestnut, 
Birch,  and  Mahogany,  are  also  employed,  but  in  small 
quantity. 

White  Pine,  which  is  principally  used,  is  light  and  soft, 
has  a  clear,  straight  grain,  and  stands  the  weather  well 
enough. 

Yellow  Pine  is  stronger,  but  not  so  easy  to  work,  nor  can 
it  resist  the  atmospheric  influences,  or  dampness  from  the 
soil,  as  well  as  White  Pine.  It  is  principally  used  for  tim- 
bers of  floors  and  roofs,  flooring  and  steps  of  stairs;  but  it 
should  never  be  employed  for  outside  work,  or  basement 
floors.  It  makes  beautiful  joiner's  work  for  the  inside  of 
houses,  and  can  be  used  for  this  purpose  in  place  of  hard 
wood  when  secretly  nailed,  as  it  can  be  polished  and  var- 
nished without  paint. 


GO  BUILDING  SAFE-(ilTlDM. 

Oak  of  good  quality,  is  more  durable  than  any  other 
wood  which  is  procurable  of  a  similar  size.  When  green,  it 
is  not  so  strong  as  when  thoroughly  dry.  Knots  weaken 
it  very  much;  and  all  cross-grained  pieces  should  be  re- 
jected. It  is  rarely  dry  two  or  three  years  after  it  is  felled, 
warps  and  twists  very  much  in  seasoning,  and  shrinks  about 
-j1-  part  of  its  width.  Oak  is  the  best  and  strongest  timber 
for  floors,  roofs,  and  stairs.  It  is  rarely  employed,  for  in- 
side or  outside  finish,  except  in  a  few  public  buildings. 

White  Oak  is  stronger,  and  stands  the  weather  better 
than  Bed  Oak ;  but  being  found  in  larger  quantity,  the  lat- 
ter is  more  used  than  the  former,  for  the  timbers  of  build- 
ings. 

Oak,  being  very  expensive,  is  not  much  employed,  and 
Pine  being  much  cheaper  takes  its  place. 

Walnut,  a  native  wood  of  Persia,  is  of  a  rich  brown  color, 
less  liable  to  be  affected  by  worms  than  any  other  timber, 
Cedar  only  excepted.  From  its  brittle  and  cross-grained 
texture,  it  is  never  used  for  the  timbers  of  a  building,  such 
as  girders,  joists,  rafters,  etc.;  it  is  principally  employed 
for  stair-balustrades,  and  also  for  the  joiner's  work  of  costly 
buildings.  It  is  never  used  outside,  for  it  does  not  stand 
the  weather. 

Cedar  possesses  a  great  durability,  and  is  not  subject  to 
worms  or  vermin.  It  is  very  straight  in  the  grain,  works 
easily,  and  splits  readily.  It  will  not  rot  for  a  great  many 
years ;  but  it  is  too  scarce  to  be  used  much  in  buildings. 

Spruce  is  tough,  and  difficult  to  work;  it  is  much  used 
in  some  places  for  floor  and  roof  timbers,  and  also  for 
flooring. 

Elm  has  a  rough  and  dark  colored  bark;  its  wood  is 
ruddy  brown,  very  fibrous,  hard,  flexible,  and  of  a  dense 
appearance,  subject  to  warp,  tough  and  difficult  to  work. 
Being  subject  to  the  attack  of  worms,  it  is  not  much  em- 
ployed in  carpentry,  except  in  default  of  better,  for  work 
above  the  ground.  When  constantly  wet  it  is  exceedingly 


WOOD,     TIMBER,   ETC.  67 

durable:  and  of  course  is  very  much  used  iu  wet  founda- 
tions, for  the  keels  of  vessels,  piles,  and  in  water-works. 
Tt  shrinks  about  ^T  of  its  width  in  seasoning.  There  are 
fifteen  species  of  Elm. 

Ash  is  white,  and  veined  longitudinally  with  yellowish 
streaks  ;  being  hard  and  heavy,  tough  and  elastic,  and  well 
fit  for  resisting  stfddeii  and  heavy  shocks,  it  is  principally 
used  for  carriage  wheels,  handles  of  spades,  axes,  and 
tools.  It  is  sometimes  employed  in  houses  for  wainscots 
and  panels  of  doors,  or  other  paneled  work,  and  produces 
a  nice  contrast  with  dark  woods,  such  as  Black  Walnut. 

Chestnut  is  a  wood  of  great  durability,  and  has  been 
much  used  in  Europe  for  the  timbers  of  roofs  of  some  im- 
portant buildings.  However,  it  cannot  be  trusted  like  some 
other  woods,  as  it  is  sometimes  well-looking  outside,  when 
decayed  and  rotten  within.  Its  color  resembles  so  much 
that  of  Oak,  that  one  timber  is  often  mistaken  for  the 
other ;  but  the  difference  is,  that  the  pores  of  the  sap-wood 
in  Oak  are  larger  and  more  thickly-set,  and  easily  distin- 
guished, whilst  those  in  the  Chestnut  require  magnifying 
powers  to  be  distinguished.  It  is  not  very  susceptible  of 
swelling  and  shrinkage,  and  is  much  easier  to  work  than 
Oak.  It  is  used  in  some  places  in  this  country  for  finish 
in  joiner's  work. 

Birch  excels  in  straightness,  freedom  from  knots,  has  a 
deep,  warm  color,  and  a  beautiful  grain.  Being  very  hard, 
it  is  very  suitable  for  floors  and  stair-cases.  It  is  employed 
in  some  places  for  joiner's  work,  and  sometimes  connected 
with  Chestnut,  Ash  and  Black  Walnut  to  produce  a  greater 
contrast  in  the  various  parts  of  the  work. 

Mahogany,  which  is  a  native  wood  of  the  West  Indies 
and  the  country  round  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  is  the  best 
w<  od  employed  for  veneers.  It  is  usually  sold  at  per  foot 
superficial,  1  inch  thick.  It  holds  with  glue  better  than 
any  other  wood,  and  takes  a  very  high  polish  with  hand- 
labor.  It  is  much  used  for  furniture  work,  and  sometimes 
for  stair-balustrades  and  doors  in  houses. 


BUILDING-  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Inspection  of  Timber. — We  can  judge  the  quality  of  tim- 
ber in  some  degree  by  its  color.  If  it  is  sound,  the  color 
is  nearly  uniform  in  the  heart,  a  little  deeper  towards  the 
center. 

Sap-Wood  is  known  by  its  white  color;  it  is  next  to  the 
bark,  and  very  soon  rots. 

Dry  Rot  is  indicated  by  yellow  stains. 

Common  Rot  is  first  indicated  by  yellow  spots  [upon  the 
ends  of  the  pieces,  when  piled,  and  a  yellowish  dust  in  the 
checks  and  cracks. 

The  defects  of  wood  or  timber  are  splits,  cracks  and  checks 
extending  towards  the  center;  if  strongly  marked,  the  tim- 
ber is  not  fit  for  general  use. 

Brash-Wood  is  generally  that  of  a  tree  on  the  decline 
from  age;  it  is  porous,  and  breaks  short  without  splinters. 

Twisted  Wood,  the  grain  of  which  winds  spirally,  is  not 
fit  for  service  in  buildings. 

Knotty  Timber  is  that  containing  many  knots,  Though 
sound;  large,  loose,  dead  or  decayed  knots  weaken  timber 
very  much. 

Belted  Timber  killed  before  being  felled,  or  dead  from  any 
other  cause  ;  it  is  not,  serviceable  for  building  purposes. 

Wind-shakes^  are  circular  cracks  which  separate  the 
layers  of  wood  from  each  other.  It  is  a  most  serious  defect. 

The  best  timber  grows  in  a  dark  soil  intermixed  with 
gravel.  The  best  time  for  felling  timber  is  in  mid-summer 
(July)  and  in  mid- winter. 

The  soundness  or  decay  of  timber  is  recognized  at  once, 
when  struck  a  quick  blow.  If  timber  is  exposed  to  the  air 
and  dried,  after  having  a  long  time  been  immersed  in  water, 
it  becomes  brasJiy  and  useless. 

tfeason'my. — The  gradual  mode  of  seasoning  is  the  most 
favorable  to  the  strength  and  durability  of  timber;  but 
various  methods  have  been  introduced  to  hasten  the  pro- 
cess. Steaming  timber  has  been  applied  with  success. 

The  various  processes  of  saturating  wood  with  a  solu- 


WOOD,   TIMBER,   ETC.  60 

tiou  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  antiseptic  fluids,  is  very 
satisfactory.  This  process  secures  wood  from  rot  and  the 
attack  of  worms,  while  hardening  and  seasoning  it. 

Kiln-drying  is  serviceable  only  for  boards,  planks,  and 
pieces  of  small  dimensions,  and  is  apt  to  cause  cracks  and 
to  impair  the  strength  of  wood,  unless  performed  through 
steam  in  a  most  careful  manner. 

Impregnation  of  wood  according  to  the  following  pro- 
cesses : 

,  1.  Kyau,  1832.  Saturated  with  corrosive  sublimate ;  so- 
lution, 1  Ib.  of  chloride  of  mercury  to  4  gallons  of  water. 

Burnett,  1838.  Impregnation  with  chloride  of  zinc  by 
subjecting  the  wood  endwise  to  a  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  per 
square  inch;  solution,  1  Ib.  of  the  chloride  to  10  gallons  of 
water. 

Timber  drying  gradually,  requires  from  2  to  8  years  to 
become  thoroughly  seasoned;  it  should  be  worked  as  soon 
as  it  is  perfectly  dry,  as  it  deteriorates  after  that  time. 

Preservation  of  Timber. — All  timbers  which  are  exposed 
to  the  action  of  alternate  dryness  and  moisture,  should  be 
protected  by  the  application  of  some  substance  impervi- 
ous to  moisture.  All  kinds  of  timber  should  be  perfectly 
dry  before  being  covered  with  paint  or  any  other  substance. 
Painting  is  highly  injurious  to  any  but  seasoned  wood;  it 
prevents  the  drying  of  the  inner  part,  the  effects  of  which 
are  fermentation  and  a  rapid  decay.  A. mixture  of  pitch 
and  tar  is  known  to  be  a  good  preservative  ;  sanding,  which 
is  sometimes  done  on  the  last  coat  of  paint  for  outside 
work,  is  very  effective  in  the  preservation  of  wood.  The 
saturation  of  timbers  with  any  of  the  oils  is  excellent 
against  vermin  ;  and  the  use  of  nitric  is  also  well  recom- 
mended. The  introduction  of  air  to  the  timbers  of  a  build- 
ing is  the  best  protection  against  rot  and  worms,  when  they 
lay  dry  and  free  from  moisture. 

Warmth,  especially  when  cooperating  with  moisture,  gen- 
erates dry  rot.  Lime,  and  dampness  of  new  brick- work 


70  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

receiving  the  timbers,  are  great  agents  of  decay  to  the 
ends  of  them.  This  can  be  obviated  by  inserting  the  ends 
of  the  timbers  in  an  iron  shoe,  or  covering  them  with  a 
thin  piece  of  iron,  or  with  tar.  Wood  laid  in  sandy  soil  is 
well  preserved  against  rot. 

Cure  of  Dry  Rot. — A  weak  solution  of  vitriolic  acid  with 
water  will  generally  stop  the  rot,  if  it  has  not  gone  too  far. 
Coal-tar  is  also  good,  but  owing  to  its  unpleasant  odor,  it 
cannot  be  used  in  houses. 

Bending  of  wood  is  effected  in  the  five  following  ways  : 

1.  By  using  the  heat  of  a  naked  fire. 

2.  By  the  softening  influence  of  boiling  water. 

3.  By  softening  with  vapor. 

4.  By  softening  it  in  heated  sand. 

5.  By  vapor  under  high-pressure. 


LUMBETC. 


When  the  wood  is  prepared  for  service  and  introduced 
in  the  market,  it  is  called  lumber,  this  is  the  general  mer- 
cantile term.  The  different  dimensions  usually  on  hand  in 
the  lumber-yards,  are  the  following: 

I  inch  thick  by  10  or  12  inches  wide. 

II  u        "      "    10  or  12      " 

H  "        "      "    10  or  12      "          " 

2~  fc-        "      "    4,  5,  6,  8, 10,  12, 14,  16  inches  wide. 

2£  "        "      of  the  above  dimensions  may  be  found 

sometimes,  but  scarcely. 
3    "        "      is  very  seldom  on  hand. 


LUMBER.  71 

The  length  of  boards,  1,  1|  and  1}  inches  thick,  is  from 
10  to  18  feet. 

The  length  of  pieces  of  from  2x4  to  2x8  in.  is  from  10  to 
20  feet. 

Pieces  of  from  2x8  to  12x12  in.  are  usually  from  12  to  24 
feet  long. 

Some  other  dimensions  may  be  found;  but  as  they  are 
not  generally  kept  in  stock,  they  have  to  be  specially 
ordered,  when  wanted. 

Lumber  1  inch  thick  works  £  of  an  inch  thick  ;  1£  inch 
works  1J-  inch;  H  inch  works  If  inch;  2  inch  works  If 
inch ;  2J  and  3  inch  work  2^  and  2f  inch. 

Lumber  3  inches  thick  is  generally  of  the  best  quality. 

A  great  many  various  qualities  of  lumber  are  used  in 
buildings ;  and  every  state  or  city  has  its  own  method  of 
grading  lumber. 


CARPENTER'S  AND  JOINER'S  WORK. 


All  the  lumber  employed  for  carpenter's  and  joiner's 
work  should  be  of  a  sound  description,  free  from  sap, 
shakes,  large  and  loose  or  dead  knots,  or  other  serious  im- 
perfections. That  portion  required  for  the  joiner's  work 
and  all  the  finish  in  good  buildings  should  be  perfectly  free 
from  any  knots,  either  small  or  large,  and  all  other  defects, 
and  it  should  also  be  thoroughly  seasoned.  For  good  build- 
ings, all  the  timbers  for  floors  and  roofs,  such  as  girders, 
joists,  posts,  studs  for  partitions,  rafters,  tie-beams,  etc., 
should  be  perfectly  dry,  when  they  can  be  procured,  for 
dry  timbers  are  of  a  great  service  to  a  building  in  the  way 
of  preventing  cracks  through  the  inside  work,  and  plaster- 
ing especially. 


72  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Flooring. — The  best  flooring  is  made  of  boards  of  from 
2}  to  4  inches  wide,  by  J  or  1J  inch  thick,  called  battens, 
grooved  and  tongued ;  another  kind  of  flooring  is  made  of 
boards  of  from  5  to  7  inches  wide,  of  the  same  thickness, 
also  called  battens,  grooved  and  tongued ;  another  made  of 
boards  of  from  8  to  12  inches  wide,  generally  laid  rough. 
In  some  buildings,  If,  If  and  2f  inches  dressed,  and  1J,  2, 
and  3  inches  rough  flooring  are  used.  Good  flooring  is  laid 
so  that  the  battens  break  joints  with  each  other,  (no  two 
joints  should  be  together)  and  each  piece  is  secretly  nailed 
to  the  joists. 

For  the  best  kind  of  work,  the  surface  of  the  flooring, 
after  being  laid,  is  smoothed  with  the  plane;  but  this  is  a 
long  and  tedious  work.  When  flooring  is  to  be  covered 
with  carpets,  it  is  made  of  white  pine ;  if  not  to  be  covered, 
yellow  pine  being  the  strongest  is  used. 

Doors,  Sash  and  Blinds. — Inside  doors,  sash,  and  outside 
blinds  are  usually  If  and  If  inch  thick  for  dwelling-houses 
or  other  ordinary  buildings  ;  If  inch  sash  is  used  only  for 
common  houses;  and  If,  2J  and  2f  inches  for  public  build- 
ings. 

Front  doors  are  usually  made  of  2J  or  2f  inch  stuff. 
Good  folding  doors,  or  sliding  doors  inside,  when  double, 
are  2J  or  2f  inches  thick.  They  are  sometimes  made  in 
two  thicknesses,  and  this  makes  the  best  work.  Common 
houses  have  generally  front  doors  If  inch  thick.  Doors  in 
gothic  churches  are  sometimes  4  or  5  inches  thick. 

The  doors  are  usually  paneled  on  both  sides,  having  two, 
three  and  four  panels  or  more,  in  height,  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  opening,  and  also  on  the  style  of  the  building. 
Some  doors  are  paneled  on  one  side  only,  the  other  side 
being  made  of  narrow  battens  laid  vertically.  This  kind 
of  doors  is  not  often  used  in  houses.  The  inside  shutters 
for  dwellings  are  1 J  inch  thick ;  and  £,  1J,  If,  If,  2^  and 
2f  for  others;  those  in  dwellings  being  partly  made  with 
rolling  slats  and  partly  paneled. 


CARPENTER'S  AND  JOINER'S  WORK.  73 

Stairs. — The  risers  of  steps  to  stairs  are  |  or  1^  inch 
thick,  the  treads  or  level  parts  of  steps  are  J,  1J  and  If 
inch  thick ;  treads  to  outside  steps  are  sometimes  If  inch 
thick. 

Board  Partitions  are  usually  made  of  f  boards,  and  some- 
times 1£,  If  and  If  inch  thick ;  they  should  not  be  more 
than  5  or  6  inches  wide,  grooved  and  tongued ;  the  best  are 
made  of  battens  3  or  4  inches  wide. 

Finishings  are  of  different  styles,  sizes  and  thicknesses. 

Hence,  the  necessity  of  having  all  parts  of  the  work, 
doors,  sash,  blinds,  stairs,  and  all  the  finish  fully  described. 

Full  size  detail  drawings  for  cornices,  bases,  architraves, 
moldings,  etc.,  become  indispensable  to  enable  mechanics 
in  making  accurate  estimates  for  the  work. 

Corrugated  ceilings  and  linings  against  walls,  which  are 
generally  used  in  some  stores  instead  of  plastering,  consist 
of  narrow  boards  or  battens  with  a  strip  2  or  2J  in.  wide 
and  i  or  f  inch  thick  molded  on  edge  to  cover  the  joints. 

Bond  timber  and  grounds  are  laid  in  the  stone  or  brick 
walls  to  receive  the  wood  finishing,  such  as  bases,  wainscot- 
ing, jambs  and  architraves,  etc. 

Bath-rooms  and  Water  Closets.  Bath-rooms  should  be 
wainscoted  all  around  with  narrow  beaded  battens  capped 
over.  In  good  houses  the  seats  of  water-closets  should 
always  be  double,  with  a  lid-cover  hinged,  and  made  of 
hard  wood  (walnut  is  generally  used).  The  riser  should  be 
made  so  as  to  be  easily  removed,  in  case  the  plumbing  work 
should  need  some  repairs. 

Kitchens  to  be  wainscoted. 

Closets  to  have  the  necessary  shelving  and  hooks. 

Wardrobes. — Stationary  wardrobes  are  sometimes  made 
of  either  black  walnut  or  cudar,  which  are  vermin-proof; 
they  do  not  run  up  to  the  ceiling,  and  are  finished  at  the 
top  with  a  neat  cap.  When  made  with  taste  and  care,  they 
are  well  fit  for  first-class  houses,  and  do  not  take  so  much 
space  as  plastered  closets. 


74  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Pantries  and  china-closets  are  fitted  with  the  necessary 
cupboards,  drawers  and  shelves. 

Sills  of  hard  wood,  under  all  the  doors  are  fixed  to  the 
tioor  with  screws 

Deafening  Floors. — In  good  buildings,  where  the  floors 
are  not  fire-proof,  they  should  always  be  deafpned  by  an 
other  flooring  laid  about  half-way  between  the  top  flooring 
and  the  ceiling.  It  usually  consists  of  1  inch  rough  boards 
laid  at  each  end  on  strips  of  wood  of  about  1^x2  inches, 
nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  joists ;  it  is  covered  with  some 
kind  of  mortar.  (See  Pugging  or  Deafening  in  Plastering.) 

In  first-class  buildings,  the  door  and  window  frames  are 
not  set  until  after  the  roof  is  put  on,  and  the  Avood  flooring- 
is  laid  only  after  the  plastering  is  done. 

Each  member  of  the  finish  in  the  joiner's  work  is  prop- 
erly sand-papered  off.  When  the  work  is  put  together,  all 
the  joints  should  be  close,  and  the  whole  finish  show  well 
defined  and  clean  lines  in  every  member;  the  plastering 
should  always  be  thoroughly  dry  before  putting  on  the 
finish. 

The  edge  of  window-casings  and  door-frames  should  be 
so  protected,  while  plastering  is  being  done,  that  they  will 
be  clean  and  square  to  receive  the  architrave,  which  is  to 
be  well  backed  out  before  being  put  up.  The  base  on  one 
side  of  the  partitions  which  contain  sliding-doors,  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  removed  in  case  of  repairs 
needed  for  the  proper  working  of  the  doors. 

The  carpenter  and  joiner  are  usually  required  to  protect 
all  projections  and  corners  of  stone  work,  and  furnish  all 
centering  for  turning  arches  ;  to  do  all  the  necessary  job- 
bing work,  and  assist  the  plumber  and  the  gas-fitter  in  cut- 
ting holes  through  floors  and  partitions  for  pipes,  etc. 

Frame  Buildings  are  built  with  an  outside  frame,  made  of 
scantlings  or  studs,  2x4  and  2x(j  or  2x8  inches,  laid  verti- 
cally, resting  on  a  thick  sill,  and  notched  at  every  story 
above,  to  receive  plates  laid  edgewise  on  which  the  joists 


CARPENTER'S  AND  JOINER'S  WORK.  75 

have  to  rest;  the  studs  are  usually  laid  16  inches  apart, 
with  rows  of  cross-ties  laid  horizontally  at  every  4  feet  in 
the  height.  They  are  covered  outside,  first  with  a  sheating 
of  narrow  boards  £  of  an  inch  thick,  grooved  and  tongued, 
papered  over  with  a  thick  brown  paper  to  make  it  per- 
fectly air-tight,  and  afterwards  finished  with  another  thick- 
ness of  narrow  boards  laid  horizontally,  lapping  one  over 
the  other  (called  siding  or  clapboard;)  the  corners  are  fln- 
islied  with  pieces  of  from  4  to  9  inches  wide,  and  about  1-J- 
or  .1 J  inches  thick. 

A  frame  finished  outside  with  boards  of  equal  widths 
laid  vertically,  and  strips  or  small  battens  to  cover  the 
joints  is  sometimes  built ;  but  it  is  not  near  so  durable,  nor 
can  it  render  a  house  so  comfortable  as  the  former  method. 

The  Frauds  reported  to  be  committed  sometimes  in  both 
carpenters  and  joiner's  work  by  deviating  from  the  "plans, 
specifications,  and  the  contract,  are  the  following: 

Very  unsound  timbers,  such  as  girders  and  joists  for 
fioors:  posts,  studs  for  partitions,  and  rafters,  etc.,  for  roofs, 
and  also  lumber  of  an  inferior  quality  in  the  joiner's  work 
may  be  used,  especially  in  the  window  and  door  frames, 
whose  defects  are  sometimes  hastily  covered  with  paint. 
The  window  frames  should  always  be  inspected  before  be- 
ing painted. 

Very  common  flooring  may  be  laid  in  instead  of  good  or 
best  quality. 

Remark. — When  specifications  call  for  first  quality  or 
clear  lumber,  every  piece  found  in  the  work  so  specified, 
with  only  one  small  knot  or  other  slight  imperfections,  is 
apt  to  be  rejected. 

rnseasoned  lumber  may  be  used  for  dry  lumber  in  any 
part  of  the  joiner's  work. 

A  wood  of  an  inferior  kind  has  been  used  sometimes  in 
place  of  another:  it  is  reported  that  pine  has  been  em- 
ployed in  some  buildings  in  place  of  black  walnut,  for  some 


76  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

portions  of  the  joiner's  work.  Doors,  sash  and  blinds  are 
sometimes  made  thinner  than  those  specified. 

Balustrades  to  stair-cases  have  been  made  in  some  build- 
ings much  lighter  and  cheaper,  than  those  specified. 

Lumber  in  flooring  and  in  the  finish,  is  often  reduced  in 
thickness. 

Wainscots  of  from  3  to  6  feet  high,  have  been  replaced 
by  bases  of  about  10  or  12  inches  high.  Very  light  finish, 
such  as  moldings,  architraves,  bases,  etc.,  have  been  used, 
instead  of  heavy  finish,  as  called  for  by  the  specifications 


I II  O 


Iron  is  the  most  abundant  and  useful  of  all  the  metals, 
and  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Ore. — Iron  is  extracted  principally  from  the  argillaceous 
ore,  or  clay  iron-stone. 

Manufacture. — There  are  three  kinds  of  iron  manufac- 
tured, viz:  1.  Cast  Iron ;  2.  Malleable  or  Wrought  Iron  • 
3.  Steel;  both  Cast  Iron  and  Steel  being  certain  compounds 
of  iron  with  carbon. 

These  products  contain  many  foreign  substances,  such  as 
Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Silicon,  Antimony,  Calcium,  Magne- 
sium, and  also  Arsenic  and  Copper,  which  are  very  poison- 
ous. The  strength  and  other  qualities  of  the  various  kinds 
of  Iron  depend  principally  on  the  absence  of  these  im- 
purities. 

After  the  ores  have  been  selected  and  separated  as  much 
as  possible  from  heterogeneous  substances,  they  are  roasted 


IRON.  77 

in  large  quantity  in  the  open  air,  to  be  freed  from  the  Sul- 
phur and  Arsenic  they  contain.  Bituminous  coal  is  used 
for  the  roasting.  The  ore  is  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
cnixhiny  mill  for  pulverization,  and  then  carried  from  the 
mill  to  the  smelting  furnace  to  be  converted  into  iron. 
Therein  it  undergoes  two  separate  processes:  first,  the 
oxide  is  reduced  to  a  metallic  state  ;  the  second  process  is 
the  separation  of  the  earthy  particles  in  the  form  of  Scoria. 
The  ore  which  is  generally  mixed  with  certain  fluxes,  is 
submitted  to  the  action  of  carbon  at  a,  very  high  tempera- 
ture, in  furnaces  (called  blast  furnaces).  The  fusion  of  the 
ores  is  effected  by  vitrifying  the  earths  mixed  up  with  the 
ntide  of  iron.  Pure  limestone,  or  magnesia  limestone,  is 
employed  as  a  flux. 

The  iron  when  run  out  from  the  blast-furnace  is  in  the 
state  of  Cast  Iron,  (Pig  Iron)  which  is  far  from  being  pure, 
having  a  coarse  grain,  and  being  brittle.  It  is  converted 
into  Malleable  or  Wrought  Jrow,  by  undergoing  one  of  two 
processes ;  either  charcoal  or  coke  being  used.  In  the 
first  case,  the  pig  iron  is  melted  in  a  furnace  resembling  a 
smith's  hearth,  and  herein  fused  three  times  in  about  three 
or  four  hours.  The  iron  which  is  again  solid,  is  taken  out 
of  the  furnace,  and  very  slightly  hammered,  to  free  it  from 
the  Scoria ;  after  this  it  is  once  more  introduced  into  the 
furnace,  in  a  corner  whereof  it  is  stacked,  out  of  the  action 
of  the  blast,  and  well  covered  with  charcoal,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  until  it  has  become  compact  enough  to 
bear  the  hammer,  which  is  of  a  large  weight,  and  moved  by 
machinery.  It  is  then  beaten  till  the  cinders  are  forced  out 
and  the  particles  of  iron  become  welded  together.  Then 
it  is  divided  in  several  portions,  which,  by  repeated  heating 
and  hammering,  are  drawn  into  bars,  in  which  state  it  is 
ready  for  sale. 

There  are  various  modes  of  procuring  the  blast ;  the 
practice  at  the  present  day  is  to  force  the  air  into  the  fur- 
naces at  a  temperature  ranging  from  600  to  800  degrees 
Fahr, 


78  BUILDING  SAFE-GUI  1)  10. 

The  proportion  of  pig  or  cast  iron  from  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  ore,  varies  as  the  difference  in  the  metallic  contents 
of  different  parcels  of  ore  and  other  circumstances ;  the 
quantity  of  bar  or  wrought  iron  obtained  from  pig  iron  is 
not  valued  at  more  than  20  per  cent. 

The  other  process  for  manufacturing-  bar  iron,  is  con- 
ducted in  reverberator!/  furnaces,  usually  called  Puddling 
Furnaces.  The  operation  is  commenced  with  the  fusion  of 
the  pig  iron  in  refining  furnaces,  like  the  one  above  de- 
scribed; after  the  refining  is  finished,  the  metal  is  formed 
into  balls,  and  condensed  under  the  rolling  cylinder.  From 
this  state  it  is  brought  into  Mill  bar  iron.  After  this  oper- 
ation, several  pieces  are  welded  together,  from  which  it 
acquires  ductibility,  uniformity  and  cohesion.  This  process 
is  generally  adopted  in  England,  and  also  in  this  country. 
Malleable  or  Wrought  Iron  is  often  obtained  from  the  ore 
directly  by  one  fusion,  if  the  metallic  oxide  be  not  too  much 
mixed  with  foreign  substances. 

Wrought  or  Malleable  Iron  in  its  perfect  condition  is  pure, 
or  nearly  pure  ;  and  is  distinguished  from  others  by  the 
property  of  'welding.  When  two  pieces  are  raised  nearly 
to  a  white  heat,  and  pressed  or  hammered  firmly  together, 
they  adhere  so  as  to  form  one  piece.  Before  being  welded 
the  surfaces  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  oxide 
of  iron,  cinder,  and  all  other  foreign  matter.  Wrought  iron 
if  not  very  pure,  becomes  granulated,  when  exposed  to  a 
constant  heat,  even  of  low  temperature;  therefore  none 
but  the  very  best  kind  should  be  used  for  that  purpose. 

Boiler  Plates. — The  iron  required  for  boiler  plates  should 
always  be  manufactured  from  the  best  ore.  The  test  con- 
sists in  heating  red  hot  and  cooling  in  cold  water.  If  it 
holds  its  tenacity,  it  is  good ;  if  not,  it  is  bad  and  should 
not  be  used  for  boiler  plates.  The  plates  are  termed  sheets 
when  under  \  inch  thick ;  plates,  if  from  1  inch  to  2  inches 
in  thickness  ;  slabs,  when  more  than  2  inches.  The  plates 
most  generally  used,  are  from  ^  to  Jof  an  inch  thick. 


IRON.  70 

The  strength  and  tenacity  in  bar  iron  are  indicated  by  a 
fine,  close,  and  uniform  fibrous  structure,  with  a  clean, 
bluish  gray  color  and  a  silky  lustre  on  a  torn  surface  where 
the  fibres  are  shown.  The  best  kind  of  plate  iron  consists 
of  alternate  layers  of  fibres  crossing  each  other,  which 
< HI ght  to  be  nearly  of  the  same  tenacity  in  all  directions. 

Boiled  Iron  is  Wrought  Iron,  passing  while  hot  through 
different  grooves  in  rolls  (called jHMfcZfe  rolls.} 

Xheet  Iron  and  Hoop  Iron  are  generally  rolled  Iron. 

Corrugated  Iron  is  sheet  iron  rolled  into  the  form  of  a 
series  of  waves;  it  is  sometimes  used  between  joists  to 
carry  concrete,  for  fencing  or  for  stiffening  frame  work. 
The  flutes  are  generally  about  5  or  0  inches  from  center  to 
center. 

Notice. — Corrugated  iron  is  very  effective  in  checking 
the  rapid  progress  of  fire  in  floors,  and  is  very  much  used 
in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe  for  this  purpose.  It 
should  also  be  employed  in  this  country  more  than  it  has 
been  in  the  past. 

The  quality  of  iron  is  improved  by  reheating,  and  repeated 
rolling  or  hammering. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Cast  Iron  :  the  principal 
divisions  are  Gray  and  White.  Gray  Cant  Iron  is  produced 
at  a  high  temperature  with  a  large  quantity  of  fuel.  A  low 
temperature  and  a  deficiency  of  fuel  produce  White  Cast 
Iron. 

Gray  iron  is  of  different  shades  of  bluish  gray  in  color, 
granular  in  texture,  softer  and  more  easily  fusible  than 
White  Iron,  which  is  silvery  white,  brittle,  and  excessively 
hard.  The  differences  between  these  kinds  of  iron  de- 
pend on  the  proportions  of  carbon  in  them.  Gray  ('axt 
Iron  contains  1  per  cent,  and  sometimes  less,  of  carbon  in 
chemical  combination  with  the  iron,  and  from  1  to  3  or  4 
per  cent  of  carbon  in  the  state  of  plumbago  in  mechanical 
texture.  That  kind  of  Gray  Iron  which  contains  the  great- 
est proportion  of  plumbago  is  the  softest  and  the  weakest. 


80  BUILDING   SAFE-GUIDE. 

Gray  Cast  Iron  is  the  best  adapted  for  all  building  pur- 
poses ;  it  is  generally  graded  thus :  No.  1.  No.  2.  No.  1 
makes  the  finest  and  most  accurate  castings ;  but  for  plain 
strong  work,  both  are  used  mixed  together,  and  No.  2  in  a 
larger  proportion. 

Gray  Iron  yields  easily  to  the  file  when  the  external  crust 
is  removed  and  is  in  some  degree  malleable  and  flexible  in 
a  cold  state.  Its  fracture  is  of  a  brilliant  gray,  and  some- 
times of  a  bluish -gray  color  which  is  lighter  as  the  grain 
becomes  closer:  and  its  hardness  is  increased  at  the  same 
time. 

White  Iron,  although  harder  than  Gray  Iron  is  too  brittle 
to  be  safely  employed  for  building  purposes,  especially  for 
columns,  pillars,  girders,  or  any  other  large  piece  of  a  struc- 
ture. It  is  not  much  used  except  to  be  converted  into 
Wrought  Iron. 

Gray  Iron  is  more  soluble  in  acids,  and  also  more  subject 
to  rust  than  the  White  Iron. 

White  Iron  resists  the  file  and  the  chisel ;  and  generally 
takes  a  high  polish ;  its  fracture  is  of  silvery  white,  fine- 
grained and  compact,  it  is  very  sonorous  and  brittle. 

A  good  quality  of  iron  is  indicated  by  a  medium-sized 
grain,  bright  gray  color,  a  close  compact  texture,  and  a 
fracture  sharp  to  the  touch. 

Mottled  Iron  is  a  mixture  of  Gray  and  White  iron. 

A  good  test  of  the  quality  of  Cast  Iron  is  by  striking  the 
edge  of  a  piece  with  a  hammer ;  if  it  makes  a  slight  impres- 
sion, denoting  some  degree  of  malleability,  the  iron  is  of  a 
good  quality,  when  uniform ;  if  fragments  fly  off,  the  iron 
is  hard  and  brittle.  Good  iron  breaks  like  a  piece  of  good 
pine;  bad  iron  will  break  like  a  carrot.  lion,  whether 
wrought  or  cast,  ought  to  be  as  little  exposed  as  possible  to 
sharp  blows  and  rattling  vibrations.  In  all  iron  work  which 
is  to  sustain  shocks  and  vibrations,  abrupt  variations  of 
dimensions  and  angular  figures  should  be  avoided,  as  frac- 
tures arc  n|)t  to  commence  at  the  angles. 


IRON.  81 

The  thickness  of  castings  used  for  building  purposes 
varies  generally  from  f  to  1J  inch.  The  thickness  of 
wrought  iron  is  not  usually  less  than  J  inch. 

Steel,  the  hardest  and  strongest  of  all  the  products  of 
iron,  is  a  compound  of  iron  with  from  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent,  of 
its  weight  of  carbon.  These  are  acknowledged  by  the  best 
authorities  to  be  the  only  essential  constituents  of  steel. 

Lower  (/rart*3,  or  Semi-Steel  is  a  compound  of  iron  with 
less  than  0.5  per  cent,  of  carbon.  It  is  intermediate  in 
hardness  and  other  properties,  between  steel  and  malleable 
iron. 

Steel  can  be  hardened  by  sudden  cooling  from  a  high 
temperature,  and  softened  by  gradual  cooling.  The  eleva- 
tion of  temperature  previous  to  the  gradual  cooling  can  be 
produced  by  plunging  steel  into  a  bath  of  a  fusible  metallic 
alloy,  ranging  from  430  to  450  degrees  Fahr. 

Steel  is  made  by  various  processes :  1.  Carbon  is  added 
to  MallC'ible  Iron  in  making  steel  for  cutting  tools,  and  other 
fine  purposes.  2.  Carbon  is  abstracted  from  Cast  Iron  for 
making  great  masses  of  steel  and  semi-steel  in  a  short  time 
and  at  a  moderate  price.  The  processes  are  the  following  : 

Blister  Steel,  made  by  cementation ;  bars  of  the  best 
wrought  iron  are  put  in  layers  of  charcoal,  and  exposed 
for  several  days  to  a  temperature  of  about  9,000  degrees. 
Kadi  bar  absorbs  carbon  and  is  changed  into  steel. 

riuldled  Steel  is  made  by  puddling  pig  iron  and  discon- 
tinuing the  process  at  the  moment  when  the  proper  quantity 
of  carbon  remains. 

Shear  Steel  is  made  by  breaking  bars  of  blister  steel  into 
lengths,  faggotting  them,  and  rolling  them  out  at  a  welding- 
heat  ;  the  process  is  repeated  until  uniformity  of  composi- 
tion and  texture  has  been  nearly  obtained.  This  steel  is 
used  for  tools  and  cutting  implements. 

Steel  made  by  the  air-Mast  is  produced  from  molten  pig 
iron  by  Bessemer' *  process,  wherein  after  the  iron  has  been 
run  into  a  suitable  fcxscl  or  converter,  jets  of  air  are  blown 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

into  it  through  tubes  as  the  liquid  is  poured  in  ;  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  becomes  combined  with  the  silicon  and  the  car- 
bon of  the  pig  iron,  and  by  this  action  produces  sufficient 
heat  to  keep  the  iron  in  a  melted  state  till  it  is  brought  to 
the  malleable  condition ;  it  is  then  run  into  large  ingots, 
which  are  hammered  and  rolled  in  the  usual  way.  About 
two  hours  are  sufficient  to  convert  cold  iron  into  pure  steel. 

Cast  Steel  is  made  by  melting  bars  of  blister  steel  with  a 
small  additional  quantity  of  carbon  (in  the  form  of  coal  tar) 
and  some  manganese.  Another  process,  requiring  a  higher 
temperature,  is  to  melt  bars  of  the  purest  malleable  iron 
with  maganese  and  the  necessary  quantity  of  carbon.  The 
quality,  as  to  hardness,  is  regulated  by  the  proportion  of 
carbon.  Cast  steel  is  the  purest,  most  uniform  and  the 
strongest  steel,  and  is  used  principally  for  the  finest  cutting 
instruments,  and  the  best  adapted  for  almost  all  purposes. 
Steel  is  now  used  for  boiler  plates. 

Corrosion  and  Preservation  of  Iron. — Iron  becomes 
affected  by  corrosion  sooner  when  partly  wet  and  partly 
exposed  to  the  air  than  when  it  is  wholly  immersed  in  water 
or  wholly  exposed  to  the  air.  Cast  iron  and  steel  cannot 
resist  very  long  the  effects  of  warm  or  impure  sea  water. 
The  best  and  the  most  malleable  irons  are  attacked  more 
easily  than  others,  by  sea  water,  when  used  alone.  Cast 
iron  may  last  for  many  years  without  rusting  when  the  skin 
is  not  injured,  as  it  is  covered  with  a  film  of  the  silicate  of 
the  protoxide  of  iron,  produced  by  the  sand  of  the  mold 
on  the  metal.  Chilled  surfaces,  being  deprived  of  this 
coating,  rust  more  rapidly. 

The  following  recommendations  for  preserving  iron  are 
made  by  good  English,  French  and  American  authorities  : 
1.  To  boil  the  iron  in  coal  tar ;  the  process  is  more  effective 
when  the  pieces  have  first  been  heated  to  the  temperature 
of  melting  lead.  2.  By  heating  the  pieces  to  the  teinpeni- 
of  melting  lead  a,nd  smearing  their  surfaces  while  hot  with 
boiling  linseed  oil,  which  dries  and  forms  a  varnish  ;  thus 


IRON.  8.3 

the  metal  is  wull  prepared  to  receive  the  paint.  •'>.  After 
the  iron  is  heated  it  is  covered  with  mineral  bitumen  or 
Asphaltumin  the  solid  state.  Iron  so  protected  had  resisted 
the  atmospheric  inflcences  for  15  years;  with  all  other  ma- 
terials, it  had  been  attacked  by  rust.  (See  Painting.) 

Frauds. — Every  experienced  person  knows  that  iron 
work  offers  great'"  opportunities  of  perpetrating  frauds,  as 
already  stated  in  Part  First  of  this  GUIDE.  It  is  asserted 
by  most  reliable  parties,  some  architects,  builders,  and 
foundry  men  also,  known  to  be  perfectly  honest,  that  some 
iron  work  specified  1J  inches  thick  and  contracted  for,  has 
been  reduced  down  to  J  or  f  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
no  proportioned  deduction  was  made  from  the  amount  of 
the  contract.  Moreover,  in  many  cases,  some  men  in  order 
to  succeed  in  deceiving  others  may  make  only  the  ed.ues 
of  plain  surfaces  in  iron  work  of  the  right  thickness,  which 
they  reduce  abruptly  for  saving  material.  The  thickness 
of  each  part  of  the  work  should  always  be  equal  on  the 
whole  surface,  except  when  otherwise  specified.  All  thick- 
nesses of  iron  work  should  always  be  carefully  figured  in 
the  specifications,  and  the  same  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
spected before  the  work  is  accepted,  according  to  the  pres- 
ent method  of  contracting  for  this  branch  of  the  work. 

Best  Way  of  Preventing  Frauds. — As  the  iron  work  is 
estimated  by  the  pound,  so  it  would  be  better  for  architects 
and  owners  to  contract  with  foundry  men  for  so  many 
pounds  of  iron  required  for  a  building,  and  the  iron  work 
should  be  weighed  on  tested  scales  before  being  set  up.  P>ut 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  strength  or  thickness  of  iron 
is  not  exaggerated  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  amount 
of  the  contract  in  order  to  derive  larger  profits  from  it. 
The  strength  or  thickness  required  for  iron  work  depends 
of  course  principally  on  the  weight  it  has  to  support,  and 
all  educated  architects  can  solve  this  problem,  and  ascer- 
tain also,  at  least  approximately,  the  weight  of  all  iron 
required,  so  as  to  give  the  owners  a  fair  idea  of  the  cost 


84 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


of  the  work,,  when  completed,  before  he  enters  iiito  any 
contract.  This  method  is  generally  adopted  in  France  and 
some  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  should  also  be  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  as  it  is  the  most  accurate  aud  re- 
liable, especially  for  all  irregular  parts  of  the  work,  such 
as  moldings  and  ornaments,  etc.,  and  the  most  effective  in 
checking  all  possibilities  of  perpetrating  frauds.  This  way 
does  not  give  the  architect  or  owners  more  trouble,  than 
to  inspect  and  examine  carefully  the  thickness  of  every 
part  and  detail  of  the  work,  as  it  should  be  done,  under  the 
present  method. 

Weight  of  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. 

I'KIl  SQUARE  FOOT. 

From  J--  to  1  inch  in  thickness. 


THICKNESS. 

i 
(    \-T               \vi;oi  <;HT 
II;ON.                IKON. 

THICKNESS. 

<     \-! 
IltoN 

\\   KOI    (ill 

IKON  . 

>"•••      ""'t:1-1    ""'r!"" 

Decimals  of 

Ibs. 

Decimals  o 
Ibs. 

•Tv 

2.346 
4.693 
7.039 

2.517 
5.035 
7.552 

•A 

11 

21.119 
23.466 
25.812 

22.659 
25.176 
27.61)4 

.j 

9.386 

10.07 

i 

28.159 

30.211 

:i" 

•T6 

11.733 
14.0711 
16.426 
18.773 

12.588 

15.1  o<; 

17.62,°) 
20.141 

1  :? 
•p 

1, 

•T6 

30.505 
32.852 
35.199 
37.545 

32.729 
35.247 
37.764 

40.282 

NOTICE.    The  weight  of  cast  iron  in  this  table  is  taken  at  4~>0  Ibs  per  cubic  ft. 

The  weight  of  cast  iron  varies  from  450  to  460  Ibs  per 
cubic  foot. 

The  weight  of  wrought  iron  is  taken  at  480  Ibs  per  cu- 
bic foot. 

Steel  weighs  about  490  Ibs  per  cubic  foot ;  therefore  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  steel  an  addition  of  about 
2  pounds  in  100  pounds  must  be  made  to  the  tabular 
amounts  of  wrought  iron. 

The  weight  of  wrought  iron  varies  from  480  to  490  Ibs 
per  cubic  foot. 


COPPEK. 


Pure  copper  lias  a  pale  red  color.  Its  hardness  and  elas- 
ticity are  very  great  and  it  can  be  hammered  into  fine 
leaves. 

Through  the  process  of  copper  smelting  about  eleven 
specimens  are  produced.  The  first  is  calcined  ore,  or  copper 
ore  after  the  extraction  of  the  sulphur.  The  last  specimen 
is  tough  bar  copper,  as  prepared  for  the  manufacture  of 
wire. 

Sheet  copper  makes  excellent  and  durable  roofs,  but- 
being  very  expensive,  it  is  not  much  used  in  this  country 
for  that  purpose,  except  in  a  few  cities.  It  is  principally 
employed  for  hips  and  valleys  (angles  on  roofs)  and  flash- 
ings on  roofs  along  walls  and  dormer  windows,  for  gutters 
and  down-spouts ;  "and  also  for  bath-tubs,  boilers,  etc.  Cop- 
per takes  a  green  rust  or  calx,  which  rather  preserves  than 
destroys  the  metal;  therefore  it  is  most  excellent  for  cramps 
in  stone  work,  but  six  or  eight  times  more  costly  than  iron. 

If  water  is  to  be  conveyed  from  roofs  to  cisterns  or  tanks, 
copper  should  not  be  used  about  them,  because  the  surface 
of  this  metal  is  covered  with  a  film  of  ccrdigris,  which  is 
poisonous.  (See  Lead.) 

Alloy. — Alloyed  with  zinc,  copper  forms  brass  for  the 
handles  of  doors,  shutters,  locks,  drawers.  The  usual  pro- 
portion is  1  part  of  zinc  to  3  parts  of  copper.  Copper  with 
tin,  in  the  proportion  of  ^  to  i  of  the  whole  forms  a  com- 
position called  bronze  or  bell  metal,  used  in  the  casting  of 
statues,  bells,  guns,  etc.  When  tin  is  of  ^  of  the  alloy, 
a  beautiful  white,  closed  grained,  brittle  metal  is  formed, 
susceptible  of  a  very  high  polish. 

Solder. — Solder  for  copper  and  brass  is  composed  of  an 


86  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

alloy  of  zinc  and  copper ;  for  pewter,  an  alloy  of  tin,  lead 
and  bismuth. 

Sheets  of  Copper. — The  sheets  of  copper  as  manufactured 
are  of  different  sizes.  The  sheets  in  general  use  are  of 
two  sizes:  30x60  inches,  and  20x72  inches;  the  first  is  most 
employed.  The  sheets  of  each  size  are  of  various  weights 
according  to  the  strength  or  thickness  of  the  metal ;  and 
they  are  graded  thus:  8  Ib.  copper;  10  Ib.  copper;  12  Ib. 
copper;  14  Ib.  copper;  16  Ib.  copper;  18  Ib.  copper,  and 
so  on;  12  Ib,  14  Ib.  and  16  Ib.  copper  are  in  general  use 
Then,  when  the  specifications  call  for  12  Ib,  14  Ib.  or  16  Ib. 
copper,  or  any  other  weight,  this  means  either  a  sheet  of 
copper  30x60  inches,  or  the  other  of  20x72  inches,  of  one 
of  the  weights  stated  above.  In  this  case  as  in  many 
others,  the  specifications  are  not  always  explicit  enough, 
for  no  one  but  the  experienced  man  knows  what  12  Ib.  or 
14  Ib.  copper  means.  The  specifications  should  always 
mention  the  weight  of  metal  for  a  sheet  of  a  certain  size, 
or  the  weight  of  one  square  foot;  and  the  last  method 
would  be  the  best. 

Frauds  are  reported  to  be  perpetrated  sometimes  in 
using  light  sheets  for  heavier  ones  as  specified;  12  Ib.  cop- 
per may  be  used  in  placed  of  14  or  16  Ib.  copper,  and  even 
10  Ib.  copper  for  heavier  metal,  and  the  latter  grade  is  too 
light  to  be  employed  for  building  purposes,  at  least  outside. 

To  detect  frauds  in  copper  work  see  the  table  below,  and 
when  the  work  is  going  on,  compare  the  weight  of  metal 
used  with  that  specified,  either  by  weighing  one  square  foot 
of  the  metal,  or  making  the  test  with  the  use  of  a  guage 
made  expressly  for  that  purpose,  which  gives  accurately 
the  thickness  or  strength  of  the  metal  arid  its  weight  per 
square  foot.  This  guage  can  be  had  from  the  wire  manu- 
facturers ;  and  every  architect,  builder,  and  superintendent 
of  buildings  should  have  it, 


COPPER.  87 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE 

Various  Weights  of  Copper  Sheets 

of  each  size,  aud  also  their  weights  per  square  foot,  to  enable  any  one  to  compare 
the  weight  or  strength  of  metal  used  with  that  specified. 

1.    Size  of  sheets,  30x60  inches. 

Weight  per  sheet.  Weight  per  square  foot. 

Ibs.      '  oz.  dr. 

12 12 

G 


12 

15 

14 

18 

1C 

20  

18.. 

..23.. 

2.     Size  of  sheets,  20x72  inches. 

Weight  per  sheet.  Weight  per  square  foot. 

Ibs.  oz.  dr. 

10 10 - 

12 19 3 

14 22 6 

10 25 1) 

IS ' 28 12 

Sheets  of  the  above  sizes  are  mercantile,  and  are  made 
as  heavy  as  100  pounds.  Sheets  of  other  sizes  are  made 
to  order. 


ZTTsTC. 


Zhic  contains  originally  an  admixture  of  lead  and  sul- 
phur, and  when  purified  from  these,  it  is  of  a  light  blue 
color,  between  lead  and  tin.  Before  being  calcined,  the 
ore  is  first  hand-dressed  to  free  it  from  foreign  matter. 

A  sheet  of  pure  zinc  is  of  an  even  color  without  black 
spots  and  blotches,  bending  readily  in  the  hand,  and  will 


SS  fctrtLDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

not  easily  break  ;  if  not  pure,  it  is  the  contrary  to  all  this. 
Cement  does  not  injure  zinc,  but  lime  and  calcareous 
waters  destroy  it;  and  zinc  pipes  to  flues  over  wood  fires 
are  destroyed  by  them.  Zinc  is  very  much  used  in  Eng- 
land and  France  for  roofs ;  but  in  this  country  it  is  not 
much  employed  outside  except  for  ornamental  work.  Zinc 
makes  good  roofing  except  for  large  flat  surfaces,  unless 
each  sheet  is  laid  free  from  the  other,  at  least  for  countries 
of  extreme  hot  and  cold  weather.  It  is  used  also  for  lin- 
ing water- tanks.  Zinc  which  contains  iron  is  worthless, 
and  not  much  better  if  it  possesses  lead. 

Galvanized  Iron  or  Zincked  Iron  is  that  iron  which  has 
received  a  coat  of  zinc.  The  metal  is  first  cleaned  per- 
fectly by  the  joint  action  of  dilute  acid  and  friction,  and 
afterwards  thrown  into  a  bath  of  melted  zinc,  covered 
with  sal-ammoniac,  and  stirred  until  the  iron  is  sufficiently 
covered  with  zinc.  Zinc  sheets  are  of  different  sizes  ;  the 
size  generally  used  is  36x84  inches. 

Galvanized  Iron  is  said  to  be  almost  as  durable  as  copper 
or  lead  ;  it  costs  more  than  plain  iron  and  increases  its 
strength  and  durability.  It  is  very  much  used  for  cor- 
nices, fronts  of  dormer  windows,  and  even  sometimes  for 
fronts  of  some  buildings,  facing  wooden  framing,  and  for 
gutters  and  down-spouts.  It  costs  more  than  wood-work 
but  less  than  cast  iron  in  such  cases,  being  used  much 
thinner. 

Solder. — Soldering  done  with  block  tin  and  lead  melted 
together  in  equal  parts,  is  used  for  zinc,  galvanized  iron 
and  tin,  and  also  for  copper  and  brass  ;  when  applied  to 
the  last  two  metals  it  is  called  soft  solder.  The  more  lead 
is  mixed  in  the  solder  over  one  half,  the  more  inferior  is 
the  solder.  Spirits  of  salts,  killed  by  putting  about  three 
ounces  of  zinc  to  a  pint  spirits,  are  put  on  the  metal  before 
the  soldering  is  done. 

To  detect  Fraud*  in  Zinc  or  (falranized  Iron  Work,  fol- 
low tin-  s;ime  rule  MS  tor  copper  work. 


ZINC.  89 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE 
Different  Numbers  and  Weight  of  Zinc  Sheets 

And  also  their  weight  per  square  foot 

Sheets,  36x84  inches. 

Weight  of  sheeN .  Weight  per  square  ft. 

Number.      Ibs.  (Decimals.}  Ibs.  (Decimals.} 

6 10.05 0.47 

7 11.47 0.54 

8 12.90 0.61 

9 14.32 0.68 

10 17.16 0.82 

11 20.00 0.95 

12 22.84 1.09 

13 '...25.68...; 1.22 

14 28.52 1.36 

15 31.36 1.49 

16 34.20 1.63 

18 45.55 2.17 

19..  ..51.23..  ..2.44 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE 

Different    Numbers  of    Wire-Guage 

And  weight  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  per  square  foot. 

Wire-Guage.     Weight  per  square  foot.          Wire-Guage.     Weight  per  square  foot. 
No.  Oz.  No.  Oz. 

30 10  22 21 

29 11  21 l>4 

28 12  20 28 

27 14  19 33 

26 15  18 37 

25 16  17 43 

24 17  16 48 

23 19  14 60 

Numbers  usually  employed  : —   Xo.  26  is  light :    Xo.  24 
is  medium  ;  Xo.  22  is  heavy  ;  Xo.  20  is  extra  heavy.    The 


90  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

dimensions  of  sheets  generally  used  are  from  24  to  30  in- 
ches wide  by  8  feet  long. 

Juniata  Galvanized  sheet-iron  is  the  best,  and  should 
always  be  used  for  good  work  in  buildings. 

Another  kind  of  iron,  called  Charcoal  Galvanized  Iron, 
is  good  enough  and  principally  used  for  gutters  and  down- 
spouts and  stove-pipes.  Bad  iron  will  crack  and  some- 
times break  when  bent. 

Galvanized  iron  cornices  are  laid  on  wooden  brackets, 
or  on  angle  wrought  iron  ones  1^  inch  wide  on  each  side 
and  from  y\  to  J  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  placed  at  every 
four  feet. 


TI]ST. 


Tinned  Sheets,  when  properly  laid,  make  a  very  good 
covering  for  roofs,  and  if  painted  occasionally,  will  last  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  best  way  to  lay  it 
down  is  to  double-lap  the  edges  of  the  sheets,  and  insert 
white  lead  between  them  as  they  are  fixed ;  by  this  means 
they  are  rendered  perfectly  secure  against  the  admission 
of  wet  without  the  use  of  solder.  Tinned  iron  nails  are 
generally  used ;  copper  nails  are  the  best,  but  more  ex- 
pensive. 

Three  different  kinds  of  tin  are  used : 

Charcoal  Tin  Plate  or  Bright  Tin  is  the  very  best  roofing 
tin. 

Roofing  Tin  or  Terne  Plate  is  very  good. 

CoTce  Tin  Plate  is  an  inferior  quality,  and  should  not  be 
used  for  building  purposes. 

Tin  is  sold  in  boxes,  some  containing  225  sheets,  and 
others  112. 


TIN. 


1)1 


TABLE  SHOWING   THE 

Marks  of  the  Different  Grades  of  Tin 

And  the  size  of  sheets  in  each  quality. 


rlIAK<  «)AI.    TIV    PLATE,   OK 
BHIGHT  TIX.    * 


HOOFING  TIX,    oil 
TERXE    PLATK. 


COKE 

TIN    PLATE. 


.Grade. 

>\/.c  of  sheets. 

Grade.     Size  of  sheets. 

Grade. 

Si/.e  of  sheets. 

1C 

10x14 

1C            14x20 

1C 

10X20 

1C 

12x12 

IX          14x20 

1C 

14x20 

1C 

14x90 

1C           20X2S 

1C 

10x14 

IX 

10x14 

IX           20x28 

IX 

12x12 

IX 

14x20 

IX  X 

14x20 

rxxx 

14x20 

IXXXX 

14x20 

IX 

20x28 

*  Sheets  14x20  IX  ami  20x28  IX  are  principally  used. 

Sheet  of  tiu  20x28  inches  square,  1C,  weighs  2  pounds. 
or  about  J  pound  per  square  foot. 

Sheet  of  tin  20x28  inches  square,  IX,  weighs  2  pounds 
6^  ounces,  or  about  9^  ounces  per  square  foot. 

Gutters  and  down-spouts  are  made  of  either  tin  (heavy), 
copper,  or  galvanized  iron  of  Xos.  24  and  26. 

Gutters  are  15  inches  girt  for  cheap  houses  ;  20  inches 
girt  for  first-class  houses;  from  20  to  30  inches  for  large 
buildings. 

The  down-spouts  are  from  3  to  5  inches  diameter  for 
ordinary  buildings,  and  6  inches  diameter  for  large  ones. 

Sheets  of  copper  20  x  72  inches  are  generally  used  for 
spouts. 


92  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


LEAD  AND  PLUMBING  WORK. 


Lead  is  of  a  bluish  white  when  first  broken,  less  elastic 
and  sonorous  than  any  of  the  other  metals,  and  the 
heaviest  of  all  except  gold  and  quicksilver.  It  is  easily 
calcined,  and  soluble  in  all  acids  and  alkaline  solutions. 
Lead  will  form  a  union  with  most  other  metals  except 
iron.  It  is  the  most  fusible,  next  to  tin.  It  is  run  from 
the  furnace  into  molds ;  the  main  form  being  called  Sow, 
the  smaller  ones,  pigs ;  and  from  these  into  sheets,  pipes, 
etc.,  etc. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  sheet  lead :  cast  and  milled. 

Sheet  lead  is  used  in  Europe  for  covering  large  build- 
ings ;  but  in  this  country,  for  outside  work,  it  is  prin- 
cipally employed  to  cover  hips  and  valleys  (angles  on  roofs) 
and  ridges  (apex  of  roofs),  and  for  flashings  along  walls 
and  dormer  windows,  etc.  Lead  is  also  used  to  fasten  iron 
cramps,  posts  and  bars  into  masonry  by  filling  up  the  cav- 
ities between  them.  Thin  sheets  of  lead  are  sometimes 
placed  under  the  shaft  and  between  the  drums  of  columns 
and  in  the  bed  joints  of  wrought  stone  arches,  to  distribute 
between  the  stones. 

Tanks  over  bath-rooms  and  water-closets  in  country 
houses  are  lined  either  with  that  nietal  or  zinc  ;  and  lead 
or  other  metals  should  be  also  used  for  gutters,  instead  of 
copper,  in  all  houses  where  tanks  or  cisterns  are  supplied 
from  the  roof,  because  water  from  copper  gutters  is 
poisonous. 


LEA.D   AND    PLUMBIFG  WORKS.  93 


IMPORTANT   NOTICE    TO    OWNERS,    TENANTS,    AGENTS,  AR- 
CHITECTS,  BUILDERS,  PLUMBERS,  ETC. 

Great  Frauds  in  Plumbing  Work. — Tt  is  generally 
acknowledged  by  experienced  men  and  even  by  some 
plumbers  that  no  trade  of  the  building  business  offers 
more  opportunities  of  perpetrating'frauds,  than  Plumbing, 
as  the  largest  and  most  expensive  portion  of  it  is  usually 
covered  immediately  after  the  work  has  been  done.  There- 
fore, the  closest  attention  should  be  given  at  the  right 
time  to  this  branch  of  the  work  which  involves  compar- 
atively large  sums  of  money. 

I  will  expose  and  explain  in  detail  all  the  frauds  known 
to  be  so  frequently  perpetrated;  give  all  the  most  reliable 
informations  on  this  subject,  and  suggest  all  practical 
ways  and  means,  enabling  anyone  to  prevent  or  detect  all 
such  frauds  which  may  be  again  attempted  or  perpetrated 
in  future. 

Lead  Pipe*. — The  lead  pipes,  as  it  is  generally  known, 
vary  in  size  and  strength.  The  size  of  a  pipe  is  taken  in- 
side; for  instance,  when  we  say  a  "f  inch  pipe,"  or  a  "f 
inch  pipe,"  this  means  that  the  bore  or  inside  diameter  is 
|  or  |  of  an  inch,  and  so  on.  The  size  of  pipes  varies 
from  |  of  an  inch  to  5  inches.  Nearly  all  pipes  of  each 
size  are  also  of  different  strength  and  weight,  which  of 
course  are  regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the  metal ;  and 
the  pipes  are  graded  thus  (in  all  places  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghany  mountains) :  Aqueduct,  Extra  Light,  Light,  Medium, 
Strong,  Extra  Strong. 

Consequently,  two  pipes  of  the  same  length  and  same 
bore  or  inside  diameter  may  differ  very  much  in  weight. 

The  tables  below  give  the  various  grades  of  pipes,  and 
their  weight  per  lineal  foot  for  each  grade,  as  they  are 
sohl  to  plumbers  by  manufacturers. 


94  BUILDING    SAFE-GUIDE. 

Attachment  or  Supply  Pipes. — Water  is  introduced  into 
ordinary  houses  with  f  of  an  inch  Extra  Strong  pipes ;  in 
large  houses,  with  pipes  f  of  an  inch  Extra  Strong;  and 
pipes  from  f  of  an  inch  to  1J  inches  Extra  Strong,  or 
more,  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  some  public  build- 
ings, such  as  hotels,  office  buildings,  etc. 

The  portion  of  the  pipe  running  from  the  City  Main  to 
the  stop-cock  outside,  is  laid  under  the  supervision  of  the 
city  authorities,  who  of  course  always  see  that  a  pipe  of 
the  required  strength  is  used ;  but,  from  the  point  of  the 
stop-cock,  frauds  are  sometimes  perpetrated  by  using  a 
lighter  pipe  than  Extra  Strong,  as  specified  and  con- 
tracted for.  None  but  Extra  Strong  pipes  should  be 
used  to  introduce  the  water  into  buildings,  for  resisting 
both  the  pressure  of  the  water  and  the  effects  of  frost. 

If  Extra  Strong  pipes  were  always  employed  in  place  of 
weaker  ones,  they  would  not  burst  out  so  often,  especially 
in  winter  time  ;  which  defect  results  in  repeated  and  very 
costly  repairs. 

Waste-pipes  axe  not  less  than  1J  inches  Light  for  wash- 
stands,  china  closets,  and  from  1J  to  2  inches  Light  for 
bath-tubs  and  kitchen-sinks.  Some  larger  ones  are  some- 
times used.  Light  pipes  are  sufficiently  strong  for  these 
purposes,  as  they  have  not  much  pressure  to  resist ;  but 
Extra  Light  pipes,  which  are  too  weak,  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  Light  pipes,  as  specified  and  contracted 
for. 

Frauds  are  also  perpetrated  sometimes  in  changing  one 
size  pipe  for  another,  as  well  as  the  strength  of  the  pipe, 
as  stated  above. 

Soil  Pipes. — Cast  iron  soil  pipes  are  generally  used  in- 
stead of  lead  pipes  for  water  closets  ;  they  are  from  4  to 
15  inches  in  diameter,  4  inches  being  the  usual  size 
for  all  dwellings.  All  these  iron  pipes  of  one  diameter  are 
of  the  same  strength  or  thickness  of  metal ;  consequently 
no  fraud  can  be  perpetrated  in  this  case,  except  by  substit- 


FRAUDS   IN   PLUMBING  WORK.  95 

uting  a  pipe  of  a  smaller  diameter  in  place  of  another 
specified. 

Notice. — The  specifications  should  always  state  the 
weight  of  lead  pipes  per  lineal  foot,  besides,  or  instead  of, 
using  the  terms  of  "  Light,  Strong,  or  Extra  Strong,"  which 
no  one  can  understand  but  the  experienced  persons.  Then 
after  the  owners  have  been  secured  with  the  specifications 
at  the  right  time,  when  the  work  is  going  on,  and  before 
the  pipes  are  covered,  if  they  have  any  doubt  about  the 
strength  of  pipes  used,  they  can  become  satisfied  by 
cutting  a  piece  exactly  one  foot  long,  weighing  it,  and  com- 
paring its  weight  with  the  specifications  and  principally 
with  the  tables  below.  This  cutting  would  not  at  all  dam- 
age the  pipes,  which  can  be  soldered  easily  at  a  very 
small  price,  and  be  quite  as  strong  as  before.  This  is  the 
only  way,  for  inexperienced  persons  at  least,  to  detect 
frauds  in  lead  pipes. 

Bath-tubs  are  made  of  cast-iron,  zinc  and  copper;  but 
copper  tubs  are  in  general  use.  All  good  copper  tubs  are 
stamped  at  the  head  near  the  top.  The  strength  of  the 
metal  ranges  from  8  to  22  ounces  per  square  foot.  It  is 
rumored  that  tubs  of  8  ounces  per  square  foot  are  some- 
times used  instead  of  others  10, 12  or  14  ounces  per  square 
foot,  as  specified.  Those  inferior  tubs  are  not  stamped,  as 
every  one  can  see. 

Then  it  is  necessary  that  the  specifications,  in  stating 
the  weight  of  metal  per  square  foot,  should  also  call  for 
bath-tubs  stamped  (if  good  tubs  are  required).  But  the 
stamp,  which  is  supposed  to  indicate  the  exact  weight  of 
metal,  has  been  in  some  cases  counterfeited ;  therefore, 
the  proper  way  of  making  the  test  is  to  use  a  guage  made 
expressly  for  that  purpose,  which  gives  accurately  the 
thickness  or  strength  of  the  metal  and  its  weight  per 
square  foot.  Water-closets  are  of  various  sorts,  as  fur- 
ther described. 


96  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Frauds  in  Sheet  Lead. — The  lining  under  bath-tubs, 
water-closets  and  wash-stands  is  done  in  sheet-lead,  which 
should  not  be  less  than  3  pounds  per  square  foot.  Some- 
times lead  weighing  2  or  2£  pounds  per  square  foot  is  used 
instead  of  lead  weighing  4  or  5  pounds  as  called  for  by 
the  specifications.  This  fraud  in  sheet  lead,  as  in  sheet 
copper,  can  be  detected  (as  stated  for  copper  work)  either 
by  weighing  1  square  foot  of  the  metal,  or  by  using  the 
guage  (which  gives  accurately  the  thickness  of  metal  and 
its  weight  per  square  foot)  and  comparing  its  weight  with 
that  mentioned  in  the  specifications. 

Hopper  Closets  are  principally  used  in  basements  and  in 
some  rude  buildings. 

Boilers  are  made  of  wrought  iron,  copper,  and  galvan- 
ized iron  ;  but  rounded-head  galvanized  iron  boilers  are  in 
general  use  now.  They  are  of  different  capacity,  and 
the  metal  is  about  of  the  same  strength  in  all  of  them; 
they  can  resist  130  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch, 
and  bear  a  stamp  which  indicates  the  capacity  in  gallons. 
Boilers  rest  on  iron  stands. 

Frauds  are  sometimes  perpetrated  in  substituting  a  boiler 
of  less  capacity  than  that  specified  and  contracted  for ;  30 
gallon  boilers  may  be  furnished  in  place  of  40  gallon  ones, 
and  so  on.  This  fraud  can  easily  be  detected  by  any  one, 
(even  if  the  stamp  does  not  indicate  the  capacity  of  the 
boiler)  in  measuring  the  length  and  diameter,  which  give 
the  capacity  in  gallons,  as  shown  further  by  a  table. 

Marble  tops  are  made  J,  1, \\  and  1£  inches  thick  ;  plain , 
molded,  and  counter-sunk.  American  marble  is  often  used 
instead  of  Italian  marble  as  specified ;  the  latter  costs 
much  more.  The  best  way  to  remove  the  opportunity  of 
perpetrating  this  fraud  is  to  call  for  the  best  American 
marble  in  the  specifications,  as  it  is  good  enough  for  all 
purposes. 

Cocks  are  of  different  styles  and  qualities,  and  are  made 
of  brass,  plain,  and  silver  or  nickel  plated.  Fuller's  pat- 


FRAUDS  IN   PLUMBING  WORK.  97 

ent  cocks  are  the  best  in  use ;  cocks  of  some  other  manu- 
factures are  also  good ;  but  some  very  inferior  ones  are 
sometimes  used  in  place  of  the  best  compression  cocks, 
as  called  for  by  the  specifications. 

Stoneware  Sewer-pipes  are  from  3  to  30  inches  bore  (in- 
side diameter)  in  length  of  2  feet  to  the  socket.  Their 
junctions  should  always  be  carefully  cemented  with  the 
best  cement  mortar.  (See  "  Brick  and  Bricklaying,  etc.") 

Precaution. — Xo  plumbers  should  excavate  under  ma- 
sonry walls,  to  make  their  sewer-pipe  connections.  (See 
44  Precaution  Against  Accidents  in  Stone  Masonry.") 

TJie  Greatest  Frauds.— It  is  asserted  that  second-hand, 
old  and  damaged  goods  are  sometimes  substituted  in  place 
of  new  articles,  as  specified  and  contracted  for.  Old  dam- 
aged water-closets,  broken  porcelain  basins  and  urinals, 
broken  or  cracked  iron  sinks,  may  be  furnished  in  some 
buildings  after  having  undergone  some  little  repairs.  The 
greatest  care  and  attention  should  be  given  against  these 
abuses. 

Some  old  broken  sewer  pipes  are  sometimes  used. 
They  are  not  always  well  repaired,  nor  are  their  junctions 
well  cemented,  f  Then  the  ground,  which  becomes  satu- 
rated from  the  leakage  of  the  sewers,  may  spread  through 
the  building  a  most  disagreeable  and  unhealthy  odor, 
against  which  a  remedy  is  often  sought  in  vain  at  a  large 
expense. 

Great  Schemes  of  Plunder  may  be  sometimes  perpetrated 
by  calling  in  the  specifications  a  larger  number  of  water- 
closets,  bath-tubs,  sinks,  basins  and  wash-stands,  than  that 
intended  to  be  used  in  a  building,  in  order  to  lead  some 
mechanics  astray  in  their  estimates  and  secure  also  the 
opportunity  of  deriving  larger  gains  from  the  work. 

Defects  in  Materials  and  Workmanship.— A  large 
amount  of  work  is  done  in  a  most  defective  manner,  re- 
sulting either  from  carelessness,  wrong  intentions,,  too 
low  prices,  insufficient  knowledge  of  the  trade,  and  from 
mechanical  inability.  Very  bad  material  is  sometimes  used ; 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


the  soldering  of  pipes  and  other  couuections  in  many 
places  are  not  properly  made.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
no  plumbers  injure  the  carpenter's  work  and  weaken  the 
timbers  of  floors,  etc.,  by  cutting  holes  for  pipes. 

TABLES  SHOWING  THE 

Sizes  and  Weights  of  Lead  Pipes 

Produced  by  two  large  Manufactories. 

Note. — It  \\ill  l»o  seen  that   they  differ  in  the  weights  of  some  pipes  of  the  same 

grade  and  si/.e. 

ST.  Louis  LEAD  PIPE  AND  SHEET  LEAD  WORKS. 


«om-:   OR 

i\>im:    IMA  \IKTKI:. 

Wcig'l 
per  I'l 

tbs.  or.' 
s 
l« 
1      4 
L2 
1 
1       8 

T 

1      4 
1     12 
2       / 
1       4 

1     12 

•1       1 
•2       S 
3 
1      s 
2 
2      8 
3 
.",      10 
2      4 
•2     12 

:i     s 
4 
4    12 
2     ]'_' 

.-;     4 

4 
4      8 
t; 
3      8 
4      4 

Average 
length. 

KOIM:    <>i: 
I\<IDI:   IMAMKTKI:. 

Wei"-'! 
per  ft. 

/!>.-;.   or.- 

:»    4 
t;   4 

7     -2 

;j    12 

l       8 
5      8 

t;     8 
8      4 
4       S 

r,     s 

7 

s 
'J       ,s 

7    i:j 
8    13 
13    11 
l(i     12 
6 

y    5 

12      Id 
16 

1!)      II 

15 

Ks      i, 
•2\      12 
26    11 

r>     r, 
n;    12 

21 
25      4 

:jo 
:.    12 

8 

Av'agt 

length 

±    in.  light  
4           strong  .       ... 

270  fe 
180 
108 

lap 

135 
90 

C.7 
138 

los 
LOO 

71 

108 
100 
78 
70 
58 
lie. 
87 
70 
58 
48 
78 
64 
50 
44 
-•!7 
64 

:.4 

44 
39 
2!) 
50 
41 

Bt 

1 

11     in.  me<linm  
stroii"- 

:;.>  i\-( 

28 

46 
39 

:;•_' 

21 
35) 
32 
2") 

18 
15 

1! 

\l 

IS 

K 

15 
15 

'.  5 
."i 
5 

f> 
15 
15 

15     '' 

ex.  strong  .  .  . 
fin    light  ...t. 

ex.  strong  
If    in.   ex.  light.... 
liffhi 

medium  

strong  . 

medium   .... 
strong  
ex.  st  rong.  .  .  . 
2      in-  ex  lii-lit  
light: 

ex.  strong  
!    in.    light  
2"           medium    
strong 

ex,  strong.  .  .  . 
t-    in.   ex.  light.  
f          li"ht 

medium  
strong  

ex.  strong  
IV1,     in.  :;-l(i  thick.... 
K  thick  
n-it;  thick  .   .  . 
%  thick  
'»       in     \\  aste 

medium  
strong  
ex.  strong.  .  .  . 
fin.  ex.  light  
light       

medium  
strong  
ox.  strong.  .  .  . 
1        in.  ex.  light  
light. 

::-n;  thick  .  .. 
>4  thick  .. 
;-)-!()  thick  .    .. 
%  thick  
3f   in.  ^  thick  
r»-l()  thick    . 
%  thick  .... 
7-10  thick    ... 
4       in.  waste  
>4  thick  
5-16  thick    ... 
%  thick  
7-16  thick    .. 
4^-    in-   waste,  

5      in.  waste  

medium  
strong  

ex.  strong.  .  .  . 

li1"'!^"1;:: 

medium  
strong  
ex.  strong  .  .  . 
11    in.  ex.  light.  .    .. 
Af           light 

FOUNTAIN  OR  AQUEDUCT  PIPE, 


3IH)    feet 

''i 

nch  

1 

..) 

120  feet 

270      " 

1 

J 

1" 

77      '  ' 

216     " 

1'. 

1  ' 

2 

1 

60     " 

180     " 

SIZE    AND   WEIGHT   OF   LEAD    PIPES. 


09 


1,.    M.    IiUMSEY    fe   CO. 


BOHE  oi! 

Weight                          I-.OHK  OH 

Weight 

IN-1DK    DIAMKTKIJ.                    perfOOt 

IN-1DK    DIAMKTKIJ. 

per  loot. 

OZ. 

ibe.     <>z. 

| 

incli  ttibiiur  ,.  
inch  ncquedact  

8 

\%  inch  adqueduct  
ex.  light  

3 
:; 

light  

12 

light  

I 

medium  

1 

medium  

.-, 

strong  

1 

i 

strong  

c, 

ex.  strong  .  . 

2 

ex.  strong  

7 

%  inch  acqueduct  
ex.  light  
light  
median)  
string  
c\.  strong   .  . 
$i  inch  acqueduct  

1 
1 
2 

10 
12 

4 
19 

8 
12 

1  '4  inch  ex  .  light  
light  
medium  
r-tmng  
ex.  strong  
2    inch    wa-?te  

:;     J2 

i 

<;       s 

- 

ex.   light  

1 

4 

2    inch   ex.  light  

4 

light  

1 

12 

light  

.1 

medi  um  

.) 

medium  

7 

strong  

2 

8 

stiong  

S 

ex.  strong.  .  .  . 

;; 

exti'u  strong  

11 

inch  acqueduct  
ex.  light  

....      1 
1 

8 

*X  inch  ::-!»;  thick  
••lick  

8 

11 

ngnt  
medium  

2 
2 

4 

:,-n;  thick  

14 
17 

I 

inch 

inch 

strong  
ex.  .-trong.    ,  . 
ncqueduct 
ex.  light  
light  
acquedtict   .  .  . 

a 
i 

2 
2 

8 
8 

8 
8 

:>    inch   waste  
."-lt»  thick  
:4  thick  
5-16  thick  
%  thick  

12 
16 

2d 

ex.  light  

2 

3#  inch  %  thick  

in 

light  

•• 

- 

r.-ir.  thick  

1^ 

medium  

3 

4 

5s  thick  

21 

strong  

4 

4    inch   waste  

5 

1 

:011g. 

j  inch  aqueduct  
ex.  light  

4 

0 

2 

12 
8 

J4  thick  • 
:•-!«}  thick  
^  thick  

IK 

21 

1  1  £  n  t  
medium  

J 

12 
12 

7-16  thick.  
4X  inch  waste  

90 

a 

c\  .   .-1  IMIIL:. 

(5 

."i      inch  waste  

8 

Sheet  Lead.— The  various  weights  of  sheet  lead  per 
square  foot  are :  2.  iVV,  3,  3^,  4,  4^-,  5,  6,  7,  S,  9,  10  Ibs., 
and  upward. 

Sheet  g^  of  an  inch  thick  weighs  1  Ib.  per  square  foot. 

The  connection*  of  water-closets  are  made  with  the  best 
glazier's  putty. 

Solder. — Lead  pipes  are  connected  with  solder  made  of 
^  parts  of  lead  and  1  part  of  best  block  tin. 


100  BUILDING  SAFE  GUIDE. 

Water-closets  most  generally  used  are  : 

Jennings'  London  closets,  of  two  kinds:  all  earthen- 
ware and  iron-trap  closets.  Both  are  considered  the  best 
in  use ;  they  are  the  most  expensive,  and  waste  much 
water. 

Carr's  water-closets,  of  two  kinds :  QIC  and  Defiance, 
which  is  of  the  best  American  manufacture  and  good 
enough  for  all  classes  of  buildings. 

IXL  water  closet,  manufactured  in  St.  Louis,  is  a  very 
good  closet. 

There  are  some  other  cheap  closets,  such  as :  Carr's  im- 
proved water-closet,  and  Smith's  valve  water-closet. 

No  water-closets  have  reached  perfection  yet,  conse- 
quently great  improvements  in  that  line  .  are  expected 
from  inventors. 

Wash-stands. — Cabinet  wash-stands  in  black  walnut,  or 
veneered  ;  marble-top,  size  of  slab  33  x  20  inches,  used  for 
one  bowl  ;  height  of  back,  10  inches. 

Corner  cabinet  wash-stand;  size  of  slab,  22x22  inches  ; 
height  of  back,  10  inches. 

There  are  some  fancy  iron  wash-stands  on  standard, 
from  27 J  to  31  inches  high  to  front  of  slab,  and  from  32  to 
39  inches  to  top  of  back.  The  bowl  is  12  inches  diameter. 

Sectional  slabs  and  bowls  with  patent  overflows,  rub- 
ber plugs  and  brass  couplings,  for  hotels,  barber-shops, 
plain,  painted  and  enameled. 

Washstands  on  iron  frames. — The  usual  size  is :  height,  3H 
inches,  back  24J,  width  19^  inches,  bowl  12  inches ;  plain, 
painted  and  enameled. 

Bath-tubs. — Copper  bath-tubs,  metal  weighs  8,  10,  12,  14, 
16,  18,  20  and  22  ounces  per  square  foot. 

New  York  pattern  tubs  are  4£,  5,  5£,  or  6  feet  long  ;  the 
French  tubs  are  4£  feet  long. 

The  cast  iron  bath-tubs  with  patent  overflow  and  rubber 
plugs,  French  pattern,  are  from  4J  to   5  feet  long, 
inches  wide  and  19  inches  deep. 


LEAD   AND    PLUMBING   WORK. 


101 


Boilers.  —  Those  in  general  UP e  are  of  the  capacity  of 
30,  40,  60,  80  and  100  gallons. 

The  capacity  of  wrought  iron  boilers  is  from  18  to  192 
gallons.  Other  sizes  are  made  to  order.  The  boiler 
stands  are  made  of  iron ;  the  size  of  ring  is  12,  13,  14,  15, 
16, 17,  18,  and  20  inches  diameter. 

Capacity  and  Sizes  of  Boilers. 


CAPACITY. 

SI/. 

K. 

18 

Gallons 

3 

feet  by 

r> 

inches 

21 

u 

19 

24 

ii 

4 

ii 

i*} 

it 

27 

ii 

u 

19 

u 

30 

ii 

5 

ii 

1° 

ii   , 

36 

n 

L  6 

ii 

12 

.   u 

35 

u 

5 

u 

13 

ii 

24 

ii 

3 

u 

14 

n 

28 

ii 

3* 

ii 

14 

it 

32 

ii 

4 

ii 

11 

ti 

36 

ii 

4* 

ii 

11 

u 

40 

ii 

5 

ii 

14 

u 

48 

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102  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Porcelain  Basins,  patent  overflow,  for  rubber  plug;  out- 
side measure  in  inches,  12,  13,  14,  15  and  10  inches  dia- 
meter. 

Slab  and  basin  combined,  square  18  x  18  inches,  and  11 
inch  basin. 

Copper  Sinks.  Size  in  inches:  12x18,14x16,14x20, 
14x24,  16x24,  16x30,  18x30. 

Iron  Sinks.  —  The  size  of  iron  sinks  varies  from  13x19 
to  24x50  inches  ;  they  are  4J,  5,  6  and  6£  inches  deep,  and 
have  corners  round  inside  and  square  at  top. 

Extension  Sinks  with  round  corners  inside,  square  at 
top,  and  extension  to  put  pump  on;  size,  18x32,  20x38, 
22x44,23x50. 

Corner  Sinks.  Size  in  inches,  20x29,  22x31;  6  inches 
deep. 

Half-Circle  Sinks.  Size,  24x14;  27x15;  31x17;  6 
inches  deep. 

Slop-Sinks.  16x16,  10  inches  deep;  14x20;  20x24; 
20x30;  12  inches  deep. 

Hydrant  Cess-pools.    14x14  ;  16x16;  6  inches  deep. 

Sewer-Traps.  16x16,  10  inches  deep  ;  20x20,  12  inches 
deep. 

Grate-Top  Sewer-Traps.    16x16,  10  inches  deep. 

Cess-Pool  Plates.    6x8. 

Corner  Urinals.    9,   10,   11,   12  inches  on  side. 

Side  Urinals.     12  and  15  inches  back. 

Porcelain  Urinals.  Flat  Bedfordshire  Urinals,  of  two 
sizes:  12^x16^;  loJxlS*  inches. 

Corner  Bedfordshire  Urinals.    Two  sizes:    10x14,  and 


Couplings  are  made  of  either  cast  iron  or  brass. 
Brass  plugs  and  couplings  are  generally  used  for  basins, 
bath-tubs  and  boilers. 

Eubber  stoppers  are  sometimes  employed. 
Pumps,  hose-pipes,  showers,  are  of  various  styles. 


LEA.D   AND   PLUMBING  WORK.  103 

Gats-fitting.— Gas  pipes  arc  usually  made  of  wrought  iron. 
They  are  not  less  than  f  of  an  inch  bore  (inside  diameter) 
for  one  or  two  burners.  Supply-pipes  for  eight  or  nine 
rooms  are  at  least  f  of  an  inch.  They  vary  from  f  of  an 
inch  to  3  inches  diameter,  depending  on  the  class  of  build- 
ings. 

Weight  of  Copper,  Lead,  Brass  and  Zinc  per  square 
foot,  J  inch  in  thickness,  in  decimals  of  Ibs.,  is  as  follows  : 
Copper,  11.500  ;  Lead,  14.7(>5  ;  Brass,  10.6;  Zinc,  9.35. 


SLATE  ROOFS. 


The  pitch  for  slate  roofs,  except  the  Mansard  and  Gothic 
roofs,  is  generally  \  of  the  span  or  width  of  a  double- 
pitched  roof,  and  sometimes  only  4-.  Hoofing  slates  are 
usually  J,  T\  and  |  inch  thick,  and  of  different  lengths 
and  widths.  They  are  nailed  either  to  the  purlins  or 
cross-bearers,  3xl£  inches,  laid  in  for  that  purpose,  or  to  a 
sheeting  of  narrow  boards  or  battens,  grooved  and  tongued 
|  or  11  inches  thick,  which  should  always  IK>  used  instead 
of  rough  boards,  for  all  good  houses  as  well  as  for  public 
buildings.  Each  slate  is  to  be  laid  on  with  two  nails 
5  inches  down  below  the  upper  end  and  about  1  inch  from 
the  side  edges.  The  nails  used  are  either  of  copper,  zinc, 
or  of  either  galvanized  or  tinned  iron.  The  last  two  kinds 
and  also  merely  plain  iron  ones  are  in  general  use.  The 
iron  nails  are  boiled  in  linseed  oil,  to  be  partially  preserved 
from  rust.  This  precaution,  however,  does  not  always 
have  the  desired  effect,  for  the  nails  will  rust  and  break, 


104  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

aud  the  slates  will  fall  out.  The  copper  nails  are  more 
expensive  than  all  others,  but  the  most  durable ;  therefore 
it  is  safer  and  will  be  more  economical  to  use  them,  as 
they  may  last  as  long  as  the  slates. 

On  iron  roofs  the  slates  are  tied  by  wire,  either  to  iron 
purlins  or  iron  laths.  In  three  courses  of  slates,  the  lower 
end  of  the  top  course  should  lap  3  inches  over  the  upper 
end  of  the  lower  course,  and  so  should  it  go  on,  except 
for  mansard  roofs  and  spires,  where  a  2-inch  lap  is  suffi- 
cient. The  part  exposed  to  the  weather  is  proportioned 
to  the  length  of  the  slates  used. 

Slating  is  started  at  the  eaves ;  the  lowest  course  of 
slates  rests  at  the  lower  end  on  a  strip  of  wood  about  f  or 
J  inch  in  thickness,  nailed  to  the  sheeting,  and  a  little 
bevelled  to  suit  the  slope  of  the  slates. 

In  order  to  prevent  rain  or  snow  from  penetrating  in- 
side through  the  joints,  a  coat  of  cement  mortar  about  J 
of  an  inch  thick  is  sometimes  put  on  the  touching  surfaces 
of  the  slates  ;  but  this  is  not  very  good  and  causes  trouble 
and  much  difficulty  in  replacing  sometimes  broken  slates 
by  new  ones.  When  the  board  or  batten  sheeting  is  used, 
the  best  way  is  to  cover  it  (as  it  is  often  done)  with  thick 
brown  paper  soaked  in  tar,  instead  of  cement.  The  slates 
are  laid  on  top. 

Different  Kinds  of  Slates.— 

"  Evergreen  Slate  Company  "  in  Vermont  manufactures 
green  slates  of  an  unfading  and  very  good  quality. 

Vermont  possesses  quarries  of  green,  red  and  purple 
slates  of  good  quality. 

New  York  State  has  quarries  of  excellent  green  and 
purple  slates. 

Pennsylvania  possesses  valuable  quarries  of  a  dark  blue 
colored  slate. 

"  Peach-Bottom  Quarries,"  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  in 
Maryland,  furnish  also  a  superior  quality  of  dark-blue 
colored  slate. 


ROOFS,  105 

XatHi'e  of  Slate.— Slate  is  a  species  of  argillaceous  stone, 
and  is  an  abundant  and  most  useful  mineral.  Its  constit- 
uent parts  are:  argil,  earth,  silex,  magnesia  and  lime,  for 
the  best ;  slate  containing  iron  should  not  be  used,  as  it 
will  rust  and  soon  decay. 

(futilities  of  Mate*.— If  a  slate,  when  struck,  produces  a 
sonorous,  clear,  Vjell-Iike  sound,  it  is  of  an  excellent  qual- 
ity. The  feel  and  the  aspect  of  a  slate  are  other  indications 
of  its  quality ;  if  it  is  good  it  has  a  hard  and  rough  feel 
and  a  clear  appearance;  if  it  is  weak,  soft  and  absorbent 
it  feels  smooth  and  greasy,  and  has  a  dull  earthy  aspect. 

Mutes  which  absorb  the  least  water  are  the  best  to  re- 
sist atmospheric  influences.  If  the  slates  absorb  and 
retain  much  moisture  the  boarding  will  soon  become 
rotten. 

The  lest  method  of  testing  the  quality  of  slates  is  by  the 
use  of  water,  in  two  ways  : 

The  first  is  to  lay  the  pieces  edgewise  in  a  tub  of  water, 
the  water  reaching  a  little  above  half-way  up  the  height  of 
the  pieces ;  if  they  absorb  water  and  become  wet  at  the 
toj)  in  eight  hours' time,  they  are  weak  and  bad;  and  as 
water  reaches  less  the  top  of  them,  so  are  the  pieces 
better. 

Another  way  of  making  the  test  is  to  weigh  the  pieces 
of  slates  and  note  their  weight.  Let  them  stand  about  12 
hours  in  water,  then  take  them  out  and  wipe  them  dry. 
Those  that  are  much  heavier  when  re-weighed  than  before 
their  immersion,  should  be  rejected. 

Flashings  along  walls,  dormer  windows,  etc.,  hips,  ridges 
and  valleys  are  made  of  either  zinc,  lead  or  copper.  Zinc- 
is  not  very  good ;  lead  is  better,  and  copper  is  the  best. 

Lead  weighing  2i  Ibs.  per  square  foot  is  used  for  flash- 
ings ;  lead  of  from  2%  to  4=  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  for  hips 
and  ridges  ;  copper,  19  oz.  per  square  foot,  for  valleys. 

The  Fraud*  reported  to  be  perpetrated  in  slating  roofs, 
by  deviating  from  the  specifications  and  the  contract,  are 
the  following: 


106  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Thin  slates  may  be  used  instead  of  thick  ones ;  slates  of 
very  inferior  quality  for  the  best ;  cheap  iron  nails,  that 
are  not  good,  for  copper  or  galvanized  iron  nails;  the 
metal  used  may  be  much  weaker  than  that  specified. 

To  Detect  Frauds  follow  the  directions  mentioned  above 
to  test  the  quality  of  the  slates.  See  that  they  are  of  the 
thickness  contracted  for,  for  this  makes  a  great  difference 
in  the  cost  of  the  work.  (See  the  various  thicknesses 
stated  above.)  As  regards  the  metal,  the  specifications 
should  always  mention  the  weight  per  square  foot;  then, 
when  the  work  is  going  on,  make  the  test,  either  by  weigh- 
ing one  square  foot  of  the  metal  used,  or  by  using  the 
guage  (as  above  stated  for  copper  and  lead  work),  and  com- 
paring its  weight  with  that  specified. 

(Refer  to  the  Tables  of  Sheet  Metals.) 

Enamelled  Slate  is  worked  for  chimney-pieces  (mantels) 
to  represent  marbles.  It  is  also  used  for  covers  to  stoves 
and  hot-water  coils,  and  other  decorative  purposes.  The 
process,  which  requires  a  great  care,  is  simply  painting  at 
a  great  heat. 

Weight  of  Slate. — Per  cubic  foot,  174  Ibs ;  per  square4 
foot,  1  inch  thick,  14  Ibs ;  J  inch  thick,  3  Ibs.  8  oz.;  ^  inch 
thick,  2  Ibs.  10  oz.  ;  1  inch  thick,  1  Ib.  12  oz. 

Stopping  Joints  on  Hoofs. — A  mixture  of  white  lead 
paint  ground  in  oil,  and  mixed  with  sand  enough  to  pre- 
vent it  from  running,  is  excellent;  it  should  be  protected 
by  strips  of  lead,  tin  or  copper,  etc.,  bent  and  introduced 
into  the  mortar-joints,  which  should  be  scraped  out  deep 
enough,  and  refilled  afterwards.  Mortar,  which  is  some- 
times used  for  that  purpose,  is  not  as  good  as  paint  and 
sand.  Cement-mortar,  with  •blacksmith's  cinders  and 
molasses  used  for  this  purpose  is  good  and  becomes  very 
hard. 


GRAVEL  ROOFING.  107 


GRAVEL  COMPOSITION  ROOFING. 


The  best  felt  paper  made  out  of  woolen  rags,  and  satu- 
rated with  coal  tar  preparation,  is  laid  in  three  or  four  ply. 
The  last  should  always  be  used  for  good  work.  A  coat  of 
composition  (pitch)  is  put  on,  and  while  hot,  the  gravel  is 
applied.  The  best  quality  of  this  kind  of  roofing  may 
last  fifteen  years  on  the  average. 

Asphalt  Roofing — The  best  asphalt  roofing  is  of  a  great 
durability.  Natural  asphalt  has  been  known  to  remain  ex- 
posed for  ages  without  alteration,  being  unchangeable  in 
the  atmosphere,  and  not  liable  to  suffer  injury  by  the 
greatest  alternations  of  frost  and  thaw.  The  asphaltic 
cement  is  very  strong  and  tenacious,  and  is  not  liable  to 
crack  in  cold  or  run  down  in  hot  weather.  It  emits  no  dis- 
agreeable odor  and  does  not  affect  the  water.  The  same 
kind  of  felt  paper  as  for  the  ordinary  gravel  composition 
rooting  is  used;  it  is  saturated  with  asphalt.  When  laid 
down  a  coat  of  asphaltic  cement  is  put  on,  and  while  hot, 
gravel  is  applied. 

In  some  places  metal  flashings  are  used  along  the  walls, 
in  connection  with  composition  roofing. 

Fraud*. — Straw  felt  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the 
best  kind  (woolen  felt),  as  specified  and  contracted  for.  It 
is  much  cheaper,  and  when  saturated,  the  difference  can 
only  be  found  out  by  an  expert.  Roofing  laid  on  with 
straw  paper  is  not  durable  and  results  almost  in  a  waste 
of  money.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  this 
kind  of  Roofing. 


108  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


SHINGLE  ROOFS. 


The  best  shingles  are  made  of  white  cedar ;  and  those 
of  the  best  quality  may  last  from  40  to  50  years  in  the 
northern  countries  ;  others  are  made  of  white  pine,  cy- 
press and  poplar,  and  being  cheaper  than  cedar  shingles, 
they  are  much  more  used,  though  not  half  as  durable. 
Shingles  are  16  inches  long,  and  from  6  to  10  inches  wide. 
Shingling  must  be  begun  at  the  eaves  and  extended  up- 
wards. Shingles  are  laid  so  that  not  quite  ^  of  their  length 
is  exposed  to  the  weather.  Two  nails  are  used  to  each 
one.  Wrought  iron  nails  are  the  best;  cut  nails  are  apt 
to  break  by  the  warping  of  the  shingles.  In  countries  of 
a  damp,  warm  climate,  all  shingles  decay  in  less  than  12 
years. 


PAINTS,  ETC. 


White  lead,  which  is  the  principal  basis  of  all  stone 
colors,  is  carbonate  of  lead,  generally  containing  hydrated 
oxide  of  lead,  which  is  sometimes  combined  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  part  of  hydrated  oxide  to  two  of  carbonate 
of  lead.  It  is  usually  made  either  by  precipitation,  as 
when  carbonic  acid  or  a  carbonate  is  to  decompose  a  solu- 
ble salt  or  a  subsalt  of  lead  ;  or  by  exposing  plates  of  cast 
lead  to  the  joint  action  of  the  vapor  of  acetic  acid  air, 
and  carbonic  acid.  It  is  by  the  latter  process  that  the  re- 


PAINTS,    ETC.  109 

ture,  which  fits  it  for  paint.  Fine  lead  is  also  made  from 
Slag  lead,  which  is  treated  with  uitrate  of  soda. 

Oxide  of  Zinc  is  known  for  its  intense  whiteness,  its  resist- 
ance to  sulphurous  and  other  deteriorating  causes,  and  its 
harmless  qualities  to  the  painter  and  the  inmates  of  the 
house  under  decoration.  It  is  requisite  that  the  oil  used 
should  be  as  white  as  possible.  Proper  drying  oils  will 
cause  zinc  white  to  dry  as  quickly  as  the  other  color. 

Fancy  Colors. — All  colors  that  are  called  fancy  colors 
have  white  for  their  bases  ;  chocolate,  black,  brown  and 
wainscot  only  excepted.  The  fancy  colors  are :  drabs, 
French  grays,  peach  blossom,  lilac,  light  green,  patent 
greens,  blues,  vermilion,  lake,  etc. 

Oxides  of  Iron. — The  paints  prepared  from  the  oxides  of 
iron  are  pronounced  by  some  men  of  experience  to  be 
quite  as  good  as  those  prepared  from  the  oxides  of  lead, 
and  their  cost  is  considerably  less. 

Reds  have  mostly  their  bases  in  iron. 

Blacks. — Lamp-black  is  only  the  smoke  from  various 
substances  ;  and  the  best  is  from  coal  tar. 

Ivory  black,  or  bone-black  is  only  charred  bone.  It  is  not 
as  good  for  paint  nor  does  it  work  as  freely  as  lamp-black. 
Asphaltum  is  a  most  intense  black  when  several  coats  are 
laid  on,  but  of  very  little  service  when  exposed  to  the 
weather.  It  produces  the  black  varnish  used  for  japan- 
ning tin  and  other  metals. 

Copper  is  the  base  of  most  blues  and  all  the  mineral 
greens. 

Linseed  oil. — The  best  linseed  oil  is  obtained  from  good 
Baltic  and  Bombay  linseed,  crushed. 

Mineral  Turpentine  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adulteration 
of  that  article:  the  paint  mixed  with  it  dries  and  then 
softens,  becoming  sticky  even  under  a  coat  of  sugar  of 
lead  and  varnish.  Wood  work  prepared  with  bad  linseed 
oil  for  heinsr  stained,  prevents  the  varnish  from  drviner; 


110  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Turpentine  is  made  of  the  gum  of  a  tree  (pine)  from  North 
Carolina,  etc. 

Nut  oil  has  been  stated  to  be  more  durable  and  to  resist 
the  effects  of  the  weather  much  longer  than  any  other  oil 
in  paint;  but  being  too  expensive  it  is  not  much  used. 

Pumice  stone  is  a  lava  of  the  volcanoes,  found  floating 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  is  a  very  useful  article  for 
rubbing  down  painted  work. 

Varnishes. — The  best  varnishes  are  made  of  gum  copal ; 
they  are  of  various  qualities. 

Wearing  body  varnish,  used  principally  for  outside 
work,  dries  from  12  to  16  hours.  It  produces  a  flue  lustre 
and  is  the  most  durable. 

Furniture  Varnish,  or  varnish  termed  "  Inside  Coach 
Varnish,77  drying  in  from  7  ,to  10  hours  is  used  for  inside 
work. 


PAINTING. 


The  best  materials  used  for  house  painting  are  gener- 
ally known  to  be  white  lead  and  oxide  of  zinc.  Both  are 
ground  in  linseed  oil  and  sold  in  kegs  of  different  sizes. 

Preparation  of  Paints. — To  prepare  the  paints  for  imme- 
diate use,  an  addition  of  31  pints  of  oil  to  10  Ibs.  of  the 
keg  paint,  will  be  required  to  make  it  flow  easily  under  the 
brush. 

Four  coats  of  best  quality  paints  are  sufficient  for  any 
class  of  work. 

Preliminary  worJc. — Before  the  painting  is  commenced, 
all  surfaces  intended  to  be  painted  should  first  be  freed 
from  dust  and  thoroughly  dry.  All  the  wood  work  should 


PAINTING.  Ill 

be  perfectly  smoothed  off  by  sand-paper  for  the  neatest 
finish  ;  all  nail  heads  to  be  punched  to  about  J  of  an  inch 
deep.  Should  any  part  of  the  surface  be  greasy,  the  grease 
should  be  removed  with  lime  water. 

.Killing  Knots.— The  knots  on  white  and  yellow  pine  are 
to  be  perfectly  killed,  as  the  painters  term  it. 

A  good  way  of  "doing  this  is  to  dry  and  burn  out  the 
turpentine  which  the  knots  contain,  by  using  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  lime  immediately  after  it  is  slacked. 
Another  usual  mode  of  producing  the  desired  effect,  is  by 
coating  the  knots  with  pure  gum  shellac  varnish  mixed  in 
alcohol.  If  the  knots  still  appear  after  the  priming  coat  is 
put  on,  they  should  be  covered  with  silver  or  gold  leaf. 
For  superior  work  a  hot  iron  is  held  over  the  knot  till  a 
good  part  of  the  pitch  has  come  out  and  been  scraped  off, 
when  the  two  coats  of  the  leaf  will  keep  out  both  the 
pitch  and  any  discoloration. 

1 'riming. — When  the  killing  of  the  knots  is  completed, 
the  first  coat  (called  priming)  is  put  on,  which  generally 
consists  of  white  lead  and  a  little  red  mixed  in  linseed  oil 
The  paint  for  priming  should  be  as  thick  as  will  spread 
easily,  and  then  will  be  rubbed  out  under  the  brush.  All 
work  both  externally  and  internally  may  be  primed  in  the 
same  manner. 

Puttying. — After  priming  is  done,  all  the  nail-heads, 
cracks,  etc.,  in  the  work  should  be  well  tilled  with  glazier's 
putty.  Jf  the  putty  is  put  on  before  priming,  it  will  be  apt 
to  fall  out,  because  the  wood  would  absorb  the  oil  from  it, 
and  then  the  putty  would  shrink. 

Glazier's  Putty. — The  best  glazier's  putty  is  made  of 
linseed  oil,  and  tine,  clean,  washed  chalk  (whiting)  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  litharge  to  insure  the  hardening; 
Hour,  baryta  and  lead  are  sometimes  added  to  the  putty. 
If  the  work  is  intended  to  be  white  finish,  the  second  coat 
should  be  half  oil  and  half  turpentine  :  if  it  is  to  he  four- 


112  fettlLDitiG  SAFE-GUIDE. 


coat  work,  the  third  coat  should  be  about  4  oil  and  f  tur- 
pentine ;  and  the  fourth  coat  all  turpentine. 

Turpentine  diminishes  the  tendency  of  the  paint  to 
become  yellow,  and  is  much  cheaper  than  oil  ;  but  it  should 
not  be  used  for  any  outside  work,  for  it  is  more  suscepti- 
ble of  water  than  oil,  and  of  course  not  so  well  adapted  to 
preserve  the  work  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Oil  produces  a  glossy,  and  turpentine,  a  flat  surface  ;  a 
glossy  finish  can  be  secured  when  no  more  turpentine  is 
used  in  the  thinning. 

Plastered  surfaces  should  be  perfectly  dry  before  being- 
painted  in  oil,  otherwise  the  paint  may  blister;  but  they 
can  be  painted  in  water-colors  immediately  after  the  plas- 
tering is  done. 

Dryers.  —  When  raw  oil  is  used  for  thinning  the  paint, 
dryers  should  also  be  employed  to  hasten  the  hardening 
of  each  coat.  The  dryers  commonly  used  are  :  powdered 
litharge,  sugar  of  lead,  sulphate  of  zinc  in  the  proportion 
of  one  heaped  teaspoonful  or  one  tablespoonful  of  Japan 
varnish  to  10  Ibs.  of  keg  paint.  Turpentine  is  not  con- 
sidered as  a  dryer  ;  but  evaporating  in  a  short  time, 
it  always  hastens  the  hardening  of  the  paint,  and  it  is 
more  fluid  than  oil.  Litharge  or  Japan  is  a  good  dryer 
for  outside  work,  and  for  priming  inside  ;  also  for  dark 
colors.  Sulphate  of  zinc  is  only  fit  for  the  last  coats  on 
the  inside  ;  sugar  of  lead  is  sometimes  used.  Either  of 
them  can  be  dissolved  in  water  and  stirred  into  the  color. 

Colors.  —  When  some  other  colors  are  desired  instead  of 
a  white  finish,  the  coloring  ingredient  is  mixed  with  the 
white  paint  for  the  last  coat,  and  sometimes  for  two  coats, 
to  produce  the  most  satisfactory  effect.  The  various  colors 
used  are  :  blues,  lamp-black,  terra  sienna,  umber,  ochre, 
chrome  yellow,  venitian  red,  red  lead,  etc.,  ground  in  oil, 
and  well  mixed  with  the  white  paint. 

Each  coat  dry.  —  In  all  cases  every  coat  should  be  per- 
fectly dry  before  the  subsequent  one  is  put  on.  Color 


PAINTING.  .11.3 

requires  more  drying  in  winter  than  in  slimmer.  Outside 
work  will  last  longer  when  painted  in  cold  weather,  be- 
cause the  liquid  does  not  evaporate  so  much,  and  the  sur- 
face retains  a  heavier  body  of  the  paint. 

Transparent  colors  will  work  more  freely,  and  spread  on 
with  an  evener  now,  by  being  mixed  with  raw  oil  and  japan, 
with  a  little  water  stirred  in. 

Thick  Colors. — When  thick  colors  are  mixed,  the  liquid 
should  be  added  gradually,  otherwise  the  lumps  will  not 
be  thoroughly  broken. 

Drying  oil  (colorless).— Boil  linseed  oil  for  two  hours  with 
three  per  cent,  of  red  lead,  filter  it,  and  then  expose  it  to 
sunlight  in  large  shallow  vessels,  frequently  renewing  the 
air  above. 

Polish  Wliite  and  Glossy  Finish. — Oxide  of  zinc,  being- 
whiter  than  white  lead,  is  the  paint  required  to  do  this  kind 
of  work  properly.  It  is  produced  by  mixing  the  paint  with 
Darnar  varnish,  or  white  copal  varnish.  The  common 
method  is  to  finish  with  the  polish  white  after  priming  and 
the  second  coat  has  been  put  on  in  the  usual  way  with  lead. 

Bext  Method. — Put  on  two  coats,  as  above,  and  then 
spread  on  several  coats  of  yellow  ochre,  turpentine  and 
japan,  with  a  little  litharge.  When  dry,  rub  smooth  and 
level  with  pumice  stone,  then  a  coat  polish  white,  and  finish 
with  a  flowing  coat  of  white  varnish,  in  which  is  mixed 
some  zinc  white.  When  work  is  to  be  finished  with  a  gloss, 
the  previous  coat  should  be  a  dead  surface,  and  if  it  is  to 
be  flattened,  the  previous  coat  should  have  a  degree  of 
gloss. 

Paints  to  Preserve  Iron. — The  best  paints  to  preserve 
iron  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  also  metal  roofs, 
are  pulverized  oxides  of  iron,  such  as  yellow  and  red  iron 
ochres,  and  brown  hematite  iron  ores,  finely  ground,  mixed 
with  linseed  oil  and  a  dryer. 

Spanish  Brown  is  an  excellent  color  for  tin  roofs,  spouts, 
gutters,  etc.  Iron  work  should  have  at  least  three  coats 
of  paint,  and  roofs  two  coats. 


11.4  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Sanding. — The  process  of  sanding  the  outside  work  is 
performed  by  throwing  tine  white,  sand  twice,  on  the  last 
coats  of  paint  before  they  are  dry. 

Imitations. — Pine  work  is  now  very  frequently  painted  in 
imitation  of  some  kind  of  hard  wood,  such  as  Black  Wal- 
nut, Oak,  Mahogany,  Rosewood,  Maple,  Satin-wood,  etc. 
It  is  very  seldom  that  any  good  house  is  finished  without 
the  introduction  of  some  graining.  The  best  imitations  are 
made  by  copying  from  nature;  and  in  order  to  secure  any 
degree  of  perfection  in  the  imitations  of  any  woods  or 
marbles,  it  is  necessary  to  procure  a  specimen  of  the  mate- 
rial itself  as  a  model,  and  copy  the  color  and  form  of  the 
grains  as  near  as  possible. 

There  are  two  methods  of  graining  woods.  Graining  in 
oil  and  graining  in  distemper. 

Graining  in  Oil. — The  grain  color  is  to  be  mixed  in  boiled 
oil  and  turpentine. 

(jra-ining  in  IMtttcmper  is  a  method  of  painting  wherein 
some  liquid  other  than  oil  or  water  is  used  for  thinning  the 
colors.  Ale,  beer,  whisky,  or  vinegar  are  generally  used. 
Stale  ale  or  beer  is  the  best,  though  whisky  may  be  prefer- 
able in  cold  weather,  because  it  does  not  creep  like  other 
fluids,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  rub  the  ground  work  with  it. 
The  grain  colors  are  Brown  and  Burnt  Sienna,  according  to 
the  tints  required. 

For  distemper  graining,  the  ground  work  is  to  be  damp- 
ened by  rubbing  all  over  with  a  sponge  wrung  out  of  the 
liquor,  before  putting  on  the  grain  color.  For  the  ground 
of  graining,  as  in  other  mixtures,  the  body  color  is  taken 
iirst,  and  the  positive  colors  are  added  by  degrees,  till  the 
required  tint  is  produced.  The  work  may  be  primed  with 
any  light  color,  as  for  other  work.  The  second  coat  must 
approach  to  the  ground  color,  and  the  graining  is  performed 
on  the  third  coat,  which  should  be  mixed  with  a  gloss, 
either  for  inside  or  outside  work. 

(lood  work  requires  three  coats  of  ground.   The  sponge, 


TAINTING.  115 

cloth,  brush  or  any  tools  used  must  be  often  washed  out 
while  doing  the  work. 

Glazing  colors  are  transparent,  and  mixed  very  thin. 

Graining  is  most  generally  done  after  the  wood  has  been 
painted.  In  the  best  work  the  coats  are  thicker  than  usual 
to  afford  a  good  ground  for  the  combing.  Grained  work, 
when  varnished, Is  more  lasting  than  plain  painting.  When 
the  work  is  to  be  grained,  each  coat,  after  priming,  should 
be  composed  of  about  one-half  of  oil  and  one-half  of  tur- 
pentine. Before  laying  on  the  second  coat,  the  work  should 
be  rubbed  down  with  tine  sand  paper  and  stopped  with 
hot  oil  putty  where  necessary.  The  second  coat  also 
should  have  a  little  rubbing  and  sometimes  stopping.  In 
order  to  save  delay  and  check  all  annoyances  which  may 
be  caused  by  painting,  a  preparatory  sizing  is  required, 
which  prevents  the  smell  of  paint  from  being  scarcely  per- 
ceived: this  produces  a  very  brilliant  effect. 

The  best  system  of  graining  Oak  and  Black  Walnut,  is 
the  oil  color  process. 

For  all  hard,  close  grained  woods,  such  as  Mahogany, 
Rosewood,  Satinwood,  and  Maple,  graining  in  distemper  is 
much  preferred  by  some  painters,  to  oil  graining.  Black 
Walnut  also  is  sometimes  grained  in  distemper. 


BUILDING   SAFE-GUIDE. 


WOOD    FILLEU. 


Wheeler's  Wood  Filler  has  been  tested  by  many  of  the 
largest  manufacturers  of  all  kinds  of  Furniture  and  Cabinet 
ware.  All  who  have  tried  it,  without  an  exception,  have 
adopted  it,  and  freely  acknowledge  its  great  superiority 
over  all  other  modes  of  finishing  wood. 

Its  advantages  are : 

1.  It  fills  the  pores  of  wood  perfectly,  so  that  n  smooth 
finish  is  obtained  with  one  coat  of  varnish. 

2.  It  is  a  non-absorbent,  and  is  not  aifected  by  water  or 
damp  atmosphere. 

3.  When  once  in  the  pores,  it  cannot  be  wiped  out.     In 
all  fillers  heretofore  used,  the  particles  were  round.     In 
this  filler,  the  particles  are  angular  and  sharp,  and  readily 
adhere  to  and  unite  with  the  pores  and  fibres  of  the  wood. 

4.  It  is  perfectly  transparent  under  the  shellac  or  var- 
nish, therefore  does  not  spoil  the  beauty  or  life  of  the 
wood. 

It  is  put  up  ready  for  use,  for  both  dark  and  light  wood, 
in  packages  of  2,  5,  10,  20,  25,  40,  50,  100,  200,  300  and 
500  Ibs. 

Varnishing. — Before  varnishing  is  commenced,  all  work 
should  be  prepared  with  a  dead  surface,  either  by  rubbing 
down  with  pumice  stone,  or  by  mixing  with  turpentine. 
Work  intended  to  be  very  finely  finished,  with  a  level  sur- 
face, is  rubbed  down  with  solid  pumice  stone  and  water; 
when  smoothness  only  is  required,  it  is  rubbed  with  pul- 
verized pumice  stone  and  water,  using  for  a  rubber  any 
woolen  cloth,  felt,  or  buckskin. 

The  first  coats  of  water  are  spread  on  evenly,  and  well 
rubbed ;  a  few  coats  may  be  given  without  rubbing,  and 
before  the  last  is  put  on,  the  work  should  be  rubbed  till 


PAINTING.  117 

the  gloss  is  entirely  destroyed:  afterwards  a  heavy  flowing 
coat  of  varnish  is  given.  When  work  is  to  be  finished  in 
a  cheaper  way,  the  rubbing  with  pumice  stone  is  not  done. 
Two  or  three  coats  of  water  well  rubbed  out  are  sufficient, 
and  on  the  last  coat  while  being  sticky,  a  heavy  flowing 
coat  of  thick  varnish  is  put  on.  This  may  be  polished, 
when  thoroughly"  dry. 

Polishing. — The  work  is  rubbed  down  with  finely  pulver- 
ized pumice  stone,  until  it  becomes  smooth  and  even,  and 
after  it  has  been  washed,  it  is  rubbed  with  rotten  stone 
and  sweet  oil.  After  the  oil  has  been  cleaned  off,  the  work 
is  polished  with  chamois  leather.  The  under  coats  of  paint 
should  be  thoroughly  dry,  otherwise  the  varnish  would  be 
apt  to  crack. 

Old  Work. — When  old  work  is  to  be  repainted,  it  should 
be  well  rubbed  down  with  pumice  stone  and  water,  and 
then  carefully  dusted  off  when  dry;  the  cracks  and  open- 
ings must  be  well  stopped  with  oil  putty.  After  this,  a 
mixture  of  white  and  a  little  red  lead  with  equal  parts  of 
oil  and  turpentine,  is  used  to  paint  the  work,  which  is  gen- 
erally termed  "  second  "  coloring  old  work.  After  this  coat 
has  become  dry,  a  mixture  of  old  white  lead,  with  a  small 
portion  of  blue-black  in  a  medium  of  half-bleached  oil  and 
half  turpentine,  is  used  for  finishing,  or,  if  flatting  be  in- 
tended, the  former  preparation  will  be  suitable  for  receiv- 
ing lead  white  or  any  fancy  color.  The  same  process  will 
serve  for  stuccoed  walls,  observing  that,  if  more  coats  be 
required,  the  mixture  of  half  oil  and  half  turpentine  is 
proper. 

Frauds. — The  frauds  known  to  be  perpetrated  in  paint- 
ing by  deviating  from  the  specifications  and  the  contract, 
are  the  following : 

White  lead  is  often  largely  adulterated  with  sulphate  of 
baryta,  whiting,  etc.,  which  maybe  detected  by  insolubility 
in  dilute  nitric  acid,  whereas  pure  white  lead  is  entirely 
dissolved  by  it. 


1  1  S  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

Vermilion,  which  is  composed  of  sulphur  and  quicksil- 
ver, rnay  not  always  be  used  when  called  for;  then  some 
imitation  of  that  beautiful  color  takes  its  place.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  Chinese  vermilion,  being  adulterated  with 
pulverized  glass,  is  almost  worthless ;  hence,  it  appears 
that  frauds  have  reached  the  Celestial  Empire  also.  The 
best  comes  from  France ;  the  American  and  English  ver- 
milions are  cheaper ;  they  are  not  bad,  but  inferior  in  color. 

Common  oil  and  varnish  may  be  often  used;  a  large 
quantity  of  soap  may  be  employed  in  graining. 

Two  coats  of  paint  may  be  put  on  instead  of  three  coats, 
and  three  instead  of  four.  A  coat  may  be  laid  on  before 
the  previous  one  has  become  sufficiently  dry. 

Defects  in  Priming. — In  many  cases  there  is  not  enough 
attention  paid  to  priming  (first  coat);  the  color  being  mixed 
up  too  thin  and  put  on  too  It  car  i/-  the  reverse  is  known  to 
be  much  better. 

Puttying,  which  is  too  often  done  with  the  lingers,  cannot 
fill  the  holes  well.  In  no  case  should  this  practice  be  tol- 
erated. Puttying  should  always  be  done  with  a  putty- 
knife. 

Remark. — There  are  different  grades  of  white  lead: 
1.  Strictly  pure  white  lead.  2.  Pure  white  lead,  which  is 
white  lead  mixed  with  zinc  white;  and  soine  inferior  grades. 

Painting  stands  much  longer  in  cold  than  in  warm  coun- 
tries. In  the  latter,  the  best  paint  may  not  last  over  five 
years,  outside,  as  the  sun  will  soon  burn  out  the  oil.  In 
the  interior  of  buildings,  the  imitation  can  stand  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years ;  but  plain  painting,  which  has 
to  be  washed  so  often  with  hard  rubbing  to  be  kept  clean, 
wears  out  much  sooner.  Bad  paints  may  not  last  two 
years ;  they  soon  crack  and  peel  off. 


PAINTING.  119 


PEST    OF    THE   PURITY   OF    WHITE   LEAD. — IMPORTANT    TO 
OWNERS,  TENANTS,  ARCHITECTS,  BUILDERS, 
PAINTERS,  ETC. 

The  following  i*  an  infallible  and  simple  commercial  test  of 
the  purity  of  White  Lea<1 : 

Take  a  piece  of  firm,  close  grained  charcoal,  aud  near 
one  end  of  it  scoop  out  a  cavity  about  half  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth.  Place  in  the 
cavity  a  sample  of  the  lead  to  be  tested,  about  the  size  of 
a  small  pea,  and  apply  to  it  continuously  the  blue  or  hottest 
part  of  the  flame  of  the  blow-pipe  ;  if  the  sample  be  strictly 
pure  it  will,  in  a  very  short  time,  say  in  two  minutes,  be 
reduced  to  metallic  lead,  leaving  no  residue;  but  if  it  be 
adulterated,  even  to  the  extent  of  ten  per  cent,  only,  with 
oxide  of  zinc,  sulphate  of  baryta,  whiting  or  any  other 
carbonate  of  lime,  (which  substances  are  now  the  only 
adulterations  used,)  or  if  it  be  composed  entirely  of  these 
materials,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  cheap  lead,  it 
cannot  be  reduced,  but  will  remain  on  the  charcoal  an 
infusible  mass. 

Dry  White  Lead,  (carbonate  of  lead,)  is  composed  of 
metallic  lead,  o  \ygt-n  and  carbonic  arid,  and  when  ground 
with  linseed  oil  forms  the  White  Lead  of  commerce.  When 
it  is  subjected  to  the  above  treatment  the  oil  is  first  burned 
off,  and  then  at  a  certain  degree  of  heat  the  oxygen  and 
carbonic  acid  are  set  free,  leaving  only  the  metallic  lead 
from  which  it  was  manufactured.  If,  however,  there  be 
present  in  the  sample  any  of  the  above  mentioned  adulter- 
ations, they  cannot  of  course  be  reduced  to  metallic  lead, 
and  cannot  be  reduced  by  any  heat  of  the  blow-pipe  flame 
to  their  own  metallic  bases;  and  being  intimately  incorpo- 
rated and  ground  with  the  carbonate  of  lead,  they  prevent 
it  from  being  reduced. 


120  BUILDING   SAFE-GUIDE. 

It  is  well  after  blowing  upon  the  sample,  say  half  a  minute, 
by  which  time  the  oil  will  be  burned  off,  to  loosen  the 
sample  from  the  charcoal  with  a  knife  blade  or  spatula,  in 
order  that  the  flame  may  pass  under  as  well  as  over  and 
against  it.  With  proper  care  the  lead  will  run  into  one 
button,  instead  of  scattering  over  the  charcoal,  and  this  is 
the  reason  why  the  cavity  above  mentioned  is  necessary. 
A  common  star  caudle  or  a  lard  oil  lamp  furnishes  the  best 
flame  for  use  of  the  blow-pipe;  a  coal  oil  lamp  should  not 
be  used. 

By  the  above  test,  after  a  little  practice,  so  small  an 
adulteration  as  one  or  two  per  cent,  can  be  detected ;  it  is 
however  only  a  test  of  the  purity  or  impurity  of  a  lead,  and 
if  found  adulterated  the  degree  or  percentage  of  adultera- 
tion cannot  be  well  ascertained  by  it. 

Jewellers  usually  have  all  the  necessary  apparatus  for 
making  the  test,  and  any  one  of  them  can  readily  make  it 
by  observing  the  above  directions,  and  from  them  can  be 
obtained  a  blow-pipe  at  small  cost. 

If  you  have  no  open  package  of  the  lead  to  be  tested,  a 
sample  can  most  easily  be  obtained  by  boring  into  the  side 
or  top  of  a  keg  with  a  gimlet,  and  with  it  taking  out  the 
required  quantity;  care  should  be  used  to  free  it  entirely 
from  the  borings  or  particles  of  wood,  and  it  should  not  be 
larger  than  the  size  mentioned ; — a  larger  quantity  can  be 
reduced,  but  of  course  more  time  will  be  required,  and  the 
experiment  cannot  be  so  neatly  performed. 

Although  the  above  description  is  necessarily  somewhat 
lengthy,  this  test  is  really  very  simple,  and  any  one  can 
very  soon  learn  to  make  it  with  ease  and  skill. 


GLASS.  121 


GLASS, 


Glass  is  a  combination  of  silex  with  fixed  alkali,  generally 
soda.  Its  fineness  depends  on  the  purity  and  proportion 
of  the  ingredients.  A  superior  crystal  glass  contains  16 
parts  of  quartz,  8  parts  of  pure  potash,  6  of  calcined  borax 
3  of  flake  white,  and  1  of  nitre.  The  glass  generally  used 
in  this  country  is  from  American,  English,  and  French 
manufacturers,  and  is  of  various  classes,  viz:  Single 
strength;  Double  strength,  and  Plate  glass. 

Single  Strength  Glass  is  graded  thus :  AA,  or  best  quality; 
A,  or  second  quality;  B,  or  third  quality;  C,  or  fourth 
quality ;  all  these  qualities  are  used ;  it  is  from  yL  to  ^\  °f 
an  inch  thick. 

Double  Strength  Glass  is  graded  as  follows :  AA,  or  best 
quality ;  A,  or  second  quality ;  B,  or  third  quality ;  first  and 
second  quality  are -generally  used;  it  is  J  of  an  inch  thick. 

Single  and  double  strength  glass  is  made  of  all  sizes  to 
40  inches  wide  by  70  inches  long. 

Polished  Plate  Glass  is  always  the  best  quality,  from  40 
inches  wide  by  70  inches  long,  to  8  feet  wide  by  14  feet  long, 
and  f\,  ^,  and  sometimes  f  of  an  inch  thick. 

Skylight  Glass,  made  in  England,  is  very  much  used  in 
this  country ;  it  is  from  ^  to  ^J  of  an  inch  thick. 

Rough  Plate  Glass,  which  is  also  manufactured  in  this 
country,  is  employed  for  roofing,  skylights,  etc.,  in  plates 
from  not  above  20  inches  long,  to  above  120  inches  long,  in 
thicknesses  of  ^,  f,  J,  f  inch,  1^  and  H  inches;  but  the 
latter  thicknesses  have  certain  limited  lengths.  This  glass 
is  not  ground  or  polished. 

There  is  another  rough  glass,  manufactured  in  France 
and  England,  which  is  much  used  for  ridge  and  furrow 
roofs,  skylights,  workshops,  and  other  places  where 


122  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

obscured  glass  is  required  to  intercept  the  vision  without 
diminishing  the  light.  It  is  made  of  two  kinds:  1.  Plain, 
and  2,  fluted  of  two  sorts:  No.  1,  large  pattern,  having  large 
flutes;  No.  2,  small  pattern,  having  small  flutes.  Both  the 
plain  and  the  fluted  kinds  are  made  J,  T%,  J,  f  and  J  inch  in 
thickness.  The  width  is  about  3  feet  and  the  length  is  not 
usually  above  70  inches ;  but  75,  90,  and  100  inches  long- 
are  also  made.  No.  2.  fluted,  is  a  clear  and  non-transparent 
glass. 

Weight.— 

1  square  foot  of  glass  y1^  inch  thick  weighs          12  oz. 
"  "     "       "        J     "  "  "         I  Ib.  S  oz. 

"  "     "      "       i    "          "          "        31bs. 

"  "    «      "       1    "          "          "        121bs. 

The  frauds  reported  to  be  perpetrated  by  deviating  from 
the  specifications  and  the  contract,  are  as  follows : 

Glass  of  inferior  quality  and  single  strength  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  best  and  double  strength  glass.  This  latter 
fraud  can  be  easily  detected  by  comparing  the  thicknesses 
of  the  glass  used,  with  those  stated  above.  The  best 
quality  of  glass  is  perfectly  free  from  all  defects. 

American  glass  may  be  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
English  or  French,  which  is  more  costly.  The  best  way 
to  check  this  fraudulent  speculation,  would  be  always  to 
call  in  the  specifications  for  glass  of  American  manufacture, 
which  is  good  enough  for  building  purposes,  when  the  kind 
wanted  can  be  procured  in  this  country. 

Let  everybody  know  that  Crystal  City,  Missouri,  manu- 
factures Plate  glass  equally  as  good  as  any  of  European 
manufacture.  Other  American  manufacturers  produce  the 
very  best  kind  of  single  and  double  strength  glass. 

The  French  glass  is  of  a  light  green  and  a  little  clearer 
than  the  American  and  the  English,  which  are  of  a  dark- 
green.  The  former  is  superior  to  the  latter,  for  picture 
frames.  The  French  glass  is  the  most  costly,  and  flic 
American  is  the  cheapest. 


GLAZING.  123 


GLAZING. 


Ola/ing  consists  in  fitting  glass  in  sashes  and  frames, 
ei tlier  in  putty  or  lead.  It  is  classed  thus:  Sash  work; 
Lead  work,  and  Fretwork. 

*SW*  Work. — Sashes  or  frames  receive  one  coat  of  paint 
before  being  glazed.  Each  glass  is  to  be  secured  into 
position  with  four  tins  or  more  (according  to  the  length  of 
glass)  on  the  two  long  sides. 

Putty  and  Puttying. — The  putty  used  should  be  the  same 
as  described  under  the  head  of  Painting.  Soft  putty  is  the 
best.  The  hard  putties  are  apt  to  crack,  if  not  soon  well 
painted. 

In  good  work,  when  medium-sized  glass  is  used,  after 
the  gla/ing  is  done  and  the  putty  well  set,  the  spaces  oil 
the  inside  should  be  tilled. 

Beddlny  for  superior  work  is  the  best,  when  large  glass 
is  used:  the  rabbet  to  be  glazed  with  soft  putty,  and  the 
glass  pressed  down  into  it  as  close  as  possible,  and  then  to 
be  glazed  as  usual. 

Cleaning. — After  the  glazing  is  done,  it  is  cleaned  either 
with  water  and  a  brush,  or  with  whiting  and  a  dry  brush. 

Glass  is  removed  from  old  sashes  by  a  mixture  of  1  part 
of  unsiacked  lime  with  3  parts  of  American  potash,  laid  on 
both  sides  and  kept  there  for  about  24  hours ;  then  the  putty 
has  become  soft  enough  to  be  cut  out  and  easily  removed. 
Paint  and  tar  also  can  be  taken  off  by  the  same  mixture. 

Lead  Work  for  fixed  lights  is  used  principally  in  ecclesi- 
astical buildings.  The  lights  are  fastened  to  saddle  bars 
in  frames  made  with  cross-bars. 

Fretwork  is  the  ornamental  part  of  lead-light  work,  and 
consists  in  working  stained  or  ground  glass  into  different 
patterns  and  devices.  Each  glazing  panel  is  surrounded 


124  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 

with  a  lend  about  f  of  an  inch  broad  in  the  leaf,  to  make 
the  work  stronger. 

Saddle  bars  are  usually  placed  from  0  to  9  inches  apart. 

Gilding  is  done  in  oil-size  on  wood  work,  and  in  water- 
size  on  plastering.  When  metal  is  to  be  gilded,  it  must 
receive  a  coat  of  paint  or  some  other  substance  to  prevent 
oxidation.  The  gold  leaf  of  various  thicknesses  is  called 
"single,"  "double,"  "thirds,"  and  of  " tints."  It  is  furn- 
ished in  books  containing  generally  25  leaves ;  each  leaf 
covering  about  1  foot  of  plain  work. 

Paper-hanging. — Papers  are  printed  from  8  to  12  yards  in 
length,  and  1  foot  8  inches  wide ;  such  a  length  is  called  a 
piece. 

Precaution. — Arsenical  Green  in  printed  papers  is  con- 
sidered very  injurious  to  health,  from  its  flaking  off  in  light 
particles,  and  floating  in  the  air,  when  it  is  taken  into  the 
lungs  while  breathing.  This  color  may  be  at  once  detected 
by  placing  a  few  drops  of  Ammonia  on  it,  whereby  the 
green  will  be  changed  into  a  deep  blue. 

Satin  papers  are  usually  hung  over  a  lining  paper. 

Walls  of  rooms  should  always  be  stripped  before  the 
new  paper  be  laid  on.  In  bad  or  common  plaster's  work, 
the  setting  coat  often  comes  off  in  parts  with  the  paper  and 
has  to  be  repaired.  A  coat  of  clearcole  is  usually  applied 
for  preparing  the  walls  to  receive  the  paper. 


STEAM  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING.  125 


STEAM  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING. 


Steam  heating  js  effected  either  through  direet  or  indi- 
rect radiation.  For  direct  radiation  three  lineal  feet  of 
pipe  1  inch  diameter  (inside)  will  heat  75  cubic  feet  without 
fail,  and  for  indirect  radiation,  three  lineal  feet  of  pipe 
(same  si/e)  can  heat  only  from  40  to  50  cubic  feet;  (depend- 
ing: of  course  on  the  situation  and  exposure  of  the  rooms. 

The  foul  air  flues  should  be  about  1  inch  square  for  every 
Mi)  cubic  feet,  in  a  hall  where  a  great  many  people  congre- 
gate, and  1  inch  square  for  every  40  or  50  cubic  feet  in  a 
dwelling  house. 

The  best  method  of  introducing  fresh  air  in  rooms  is 
from  below,  through  ducts  of  the  same  area  as  for  foul-air 
tines.  These  ducts  should  be  opened  near  the  floor,  and 
placed  on  the  same  side  with  the  heaters  and  opposite  to 
the  foul-air  tines,  which  should  also  be  opened  as  near  to 
the  floor  as  possible.  The  fresh  air  is  usually  heated  by  a 
coil  placed  at  the  point  where  the  vertical  portion  of  the 
duct  commences. 

Vertical  tube  radiators  of  wrought  iron  are  used  for 
direct  radiation,  with  covers,  made  of  either  slate,  marble, 
or  iron. 

Horizontal  stacks  or  coils,  either  of  cast  or  wrought  iron 
are  employed  for  indirect  radiation,  and  usually  placed  in 
the  basement. 

Hot-air  flues  are  made  of  IX  Bright  Tin,  1  'inch  square 
per  60  cubic  feet. 

The  registers  and  ventilators  are  usually  made  of  cast 
iron,  from  4x8  to  27x38  inches  square;  others  are  made 
to  order. 


126 


BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


Wrought  Iron  Pipes. 

PLAIN,   ENAMELLED,   AND  GALVANIZED,  FOR  STEAM,    GAS, 
AND  WATER. 


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MANTELS,  GKRATES,  ASTD  HEARTHS. 


Mantels  are  made  of  marble,  slate  enamelled,  cast  iron 
enamelled  from  £  to  \  of  an  inch  thick,  limestone,  and 
wood. 

The  grates  are  at  least  of  twenty  different  patterns. 

Hearths  are  made  of  slate  and  marble  from  1  to  1£  inch 
thich,  and  stone  from  1J  to  3  inches  thick.  They  are  usually 
16,  18,  and  20  inches  wide  by  4  feet  8  inches,  5  feet  and  5 
feet  6  inches  long.  Marble  hearths  are  principally  used. 

Vestibule  floors  are  laid  with  platforms  and  steps  1J 
inches  thick,  and  risers  1  inch  plain  and  1J  inches  molded. 


MANTELS,   GRATES   AND   HEARTHS.  127 

Marble  tops  are  f,  1, 1J,  and  1^  inches  plain,  molded  and 
counter-sunk.  The  various  kinds  of  marble  in  general 
use  are :  Mexican  Onyx,  Missouri  Onyx;  German,  various 
grades  and  colors,  and  various  prices.  Lisbon,  two  grades, 
yellowish  red  color,  various  prices. 

Tennessee.  Dark. red,  three  grades,  and  Knoxville,  red 
with  black  veins,  three  grades;  various  prices  for  both 
kinds.  Dark  red  is  about  double  the  price  of  Knoxville- 

Italian  Statuary  (white  marble,)  and  others  of  bluish 
color,  two  grades,  No.  1  with  light  veins,  No.  2  darker.  The 
light  is  a  little  more  costly. 

Vermont  Statuary  (white),  various  colors,  grades,  and 
various  prices. 

All  kinds  are  used  for  mantels.  No.  3  Vermont,  white, 
with  dark  veins,  is  generally  used  for  hearths;  Italian  No.  1 
for  vestibules. 

Frauds. — Marble  of  inferior  quality  is  sometimes  used 
in  place  of  a  superior  grade,  as  contracted  for.  When 
American  marble  is  used  instead  of  the  Italian,  it  is  gener- 
ally of  the  worst  kind,  so  as  to  resemble  the  color  of  the 
latter. 

Remark. — The  best  American  marble  is  good  enough  for 
all  purposes,  and  should  always  be  called  for. 

In  laying  tiles  when  the  Portland  or  other  best  cement 
is  required,  and  called  for  by  the  specifications,  very  com- 
mon cement  which  costs  only  one-quarter  of  the  former,  is 
sometimes  used. 


128  BUILDING  SAFE-GUIDE. 


ELECTRIC  BELLS,  SPEAKING  TUBES 
BURGLAR  ALARMS. 


Heisler's  system  has  superseded  in  regard  to  quality, 
finish  and  durability,  not  only  the  old  pull  bell  and  tube 
system,  but  has  been  successfully  introduced  into  dwellings 
where  other  electric  and  pull  bell  systems  have  been  found 
useless.  His  system  is  generally  specified  by  all  the  lead- 
ing architects  for  all  classes  of  buildings,  viz  : 

Bronze  Front  door  lever  pull,  with  bell  in  kitchen  and 
hall.  Side  door  pull  to  ring  in  kitchen. 

One  servant's  bell  to  ring  from  front  chamber. 

Stable  bell  to  ring  from  front  chamber  and  dining  room. 

Dining  room  floor  contact,  to  ring  in  the  kitchen. 

Heisler's  continuous  speaking-tube  system  in  connection 
with  parlor,  library,  sitting-room,  four  chambers  in  second 
story,  and  four  chambers  in  third  story. 

All  to  terminate  in  the  kitchen. 

One  5  number  "Burglar  Alarm  Annunciator'7  to  be 
connected  with  all  the  windows  on  the  first  floor  and  base- 
ment, doors  of  first  and  basement  floors. 

Oniiwion. — As  regards  tin  work;  1C  tin  (light  weight)  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  IX  tin  (heavy),  and  painted  on 
one  side  only,  instead  of  both  sides,  as  specified  and  con- 
tracted for.  (See  the  weight  of  tin  per  sheets  and  square 
foot.) 


NOTES. 

The  State  of  Maine  possesses  quarries  of  superior  quality 
elate.  Virginia  also  lias  quarries  of  excellent  slates. 

Cements  from  Akron,  Ohio ;  Akron,  New  York ;  and 
cement  from  Akron,  Ills,  which  has  already  been  men- 
tioned, are  excellent. 

Gypsum,  known  as  Plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  a  sulphate 
of  lime,  is  also  found  in  abundance  through  this  country 

Remark  about  Glaus. — The  weights  of  glass  per  square 
foot,  stated  in  this  work  to  be  12  oz.  for  J¥  of  an  inch  thick; 
1  Ib.  8  oz.  for  I  of  an  inch  thick;  3  Ibs  for  ^  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  1-  Ibs  for  1  inch  thick,  are  rather  light,  but  cor- 
rect for  glass  which  is  not  of  the  exact  thicknesses  stated 
above  (when  supposed  to  be  such).  The  weights  of  glass 
are  usually  taken  at  13  oz.  for  ^  of  an  inch  thick  ;  26  oz, 
for  |-  of  an  inch  thick ;  52  oz.  for  ^  of  an  inch  thick ;  13  Ibs 
for  1  inch  thick.  Sheets  of  glass  are  often  very  irregular 
in  thickness,  and  of  course  vary  in  weights. 

Cement  Paving. — Good  paving  is  made  of  English  Port- 
land cement,  laid  in  blocks  of  from  3  to  4  inches  in  thickness. 
When  the  ground  is  exposed  to  running  water,  as  is  the 
case  of  inside  walks,  a  concrete  foundation  <>  inches  thick 
at  least  should  be  laid  first  to  receive  the  paving.  When 
this  kind  of  work,  which  requires  the  best  quality  of  cement 
and  concrete,  is  done  with  inferior  materials,  it  is  considered 
worthless.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  cement 
paving,  in  which  great  frauds  may  be  perpetrated. 


NOTICES. 

The  Galvanized  Iron  Skylights,  Galvanized  Iron  Cornices, 
Window  Caps  and  other  Sheet  Metal  Trimmings,  manu- 
factured by  A.  C.  Dunlevy,  and  also  by  Cochran  &  Kam- 
merer,  give  the  best  satisfaction,  being  used  by  leading 
architects  on  some  of  the  most  important  buildings. 


134  BUILDING    SAKE    GUIDE. 


Rules  of  Measuring  Adopted  in  St.  Louis. 


Notice. — These  are  principally  the  general  rules,  and  of 
course  details  are  not  thoroughly  considered. 

Excavation  is  measured  by  the  cubic  yard,  that  is,  3  feet 
by  ,3  feet  =  9  feet  by  3  feet  =  27  cubic  feet.  The  length 
multiplied  by  the  depth,  and  this  amount  multiplied  by  the 
average  depth,  will  give  the  cubic  contents  in  feet;  the 
product  divided  by  27  feet  will  give  the  amount  of  cubic 
yards. 

Rubble  MnNoiirii  is  measured  in  St.  Louis,  according  to 
custom,  by  the  perch  of  22  cubic  feet  as  follows:  Say  one 
wall  20  feet  long  by  10  feet  deep  =  200  feet,  by  2  feet  thick 
=  400  cubic  feet,  divided  by  22  feet  =  18  perches  and  4 
feet.  Openings  of  ordinary  size  are  not  deducted.  Cir- 
cular or  oval  work  is  usually  measured  double.  All  outside 
corners  are  measured  double ;  thus,  in  a  foundation  of  a 
building  40  feet  square,  each  side  is  measured  40  feet  long. 
Division  or  party  walls  are  measured  as  they  are  (net 
measure  inside.)  Some  allowances  are  usually  made  for 
projections  and  isolated  piers,  over  their  real  contents. 

Range-work  is  measured  by  the  superficial  foot,  all  open- 
ings being  deducted.  Piers  built  of  dimension  rock  are 
measured  by  the  cubic  foot. 

Stone-c-uttini/.—Thu  cubic  contents  of  all  parts  of  the 
work  are  usually  first  taken,  and  afterwards  the  surface  of 
the  same,  where  worked,  aie  measured  by  the  superficial 
foot.  For  molded  work  on  cornices,  architraves,  etc.,  the 
girt  of  all  the  moldings  is  measured.  One  dimension 
multiplied  by  the  other  gives  the  number  of  superficial  feet. 
Allowances  are  made  for  circular  and  paneled  work.  All 
parts  of  the  work  1  foot  wide,  or  under,  are  measured  by 
the  lineal  foot.  All  openings  are  deducted. 


RTLES    OF   MKAST"R1N(J.  1 :.'."» 

Pointing  to  fronts  is  measured  by  the  superficial  foot. 

Br-ic'k-icor'k  is  measured  at  per  thousand  bricks  laid  in  the 
walls.  A  superficial  foot  of  brick-work  4  inches  or  J  brick 
thick,  is  supposed  to  contain  7  bricks ;  8£  inches  or  a  whole 
brick,  14  bricks;  12|  inches  or  l.i  brick,  21  bricks;  171  in- 
ches or  2  bricks  thick,  28  bricks,  and  so  on;  every  additional 
brick  of  course  adding  7  bricks  to  the  cubic  contents  per 
square  foot  of  the  surface.  All  outside  corners  are  measured 
double,  as  for  stone  masonry;  the  party  or  division  walls 
are  measured  as  they  are  (net  measure).  The  openings  are 
deducted  from  the  top  of  the  sill  to  the  springing  of  the 
arch  (the  point  where  the  arch  commences).  When  the 
brick-layer  sets  the  window  or  door  frames,  the  width  of 
the  opening  should  be  deducted  only  inside  of  the  frame. 
Bond  timber,  chimney  flues  and  fire-places  are  not  deducted. 
All  projections  are  measured,  and  a  fair  allowance  must  be 
made  for  cutting  bricks. 

Parintj  is  measured  by  the  superficial  yard  :  40  bricks  laid 
flatwise,  and  ^5  bricks  laid  edgewise,  are  allowed  for  one 
yard. 

The  St.  Louis  Hydraulic  Press  or  Stock  Brick,  is  of 
different  grades  or  qualities,  viz  : 

No.  1.  Light  red,  defective,  with  spots,  eraeks,  and  edges 
chipped  and  corners  broken,  especially  after  having  been 
laid. 

Xo.  2.  Little  darker,  fair  quality. 

No.  3.  Perfect  brick,  of  a  medium  color,  which  is  generally 
used  for  nice  fronts. 

No.  4.  Perfect  brick,  dark  red,  is  the  strongest. 

No.  5.  Darker  than  No.  4,  not  quite  so  good. 

No.  G.  Very  hard  and  strong,  but  warped  and  crocket- 
Weight. — Hard,  T>  Ibs;  Medium,  41  Ibs:  Salmon,  4  Ibs. 

Plastering. — Plain  plastering  is  measured  by  the  super- 
ficial yard;  that  is,  3  feet  multiplied  by  .°>  feet  =  0  feet.  One 
half  of  each  opening,  such  as  doors,  windows,  etc.,  is 
deducted.  The  whole  amount  of  superficial  feet,  after  the 


!^    SAFE-GUIDE. 

deductions  have  been  made,  divided  by  9  feet  gives  the 
number  of  superficial  yards.  All  cornices  are  measured  by 
the  square  foot,  allowing  1  foot  to  each  mitre,  multiplied 
by  the  girt.  Cornices  or  moldings  under  1  foot  are  measured 
by  the  lineal  foot.  Ornaments  are  measured  separately; 
circular  work  is  measured  double. 

Carpenter's  Work. — All  timbers,  such  as  girders,  joists, 
studs  for  partitions,  etc.,  are  charged  at  so  much  per  1,000 
superficial  feet  of  board  measure,  1  inch  thick,  and  the 
labor  for  laying  them  is  generally  valued  in  measuring  the 
wrhole  surface  of  framing  by  the  square,  that  i«,  10  feet  by 
10  feet  =  100  feet.  Furring  of  walls,  flooring,  roof-sheeting 
and  board  partitions,  are  measured  by  the  square,  and  ^  of 
the  surface  is  usually  added  for  waste ;  the  same  allowance 
is  also  made  for  timbers. 

.Roofing  is  measured  by  the  square  of  100  feet.;  that  is, 
1()  feet  by  10  feet  ==  100  feet  superficial.  Ko  deductions 
are  made  generally,  but  allowances  are  sometimes  made  at 
the  eaves  and  the  top. 

Painting  is  measured  wherever  the  brush  goes,  by  the 
superficial  yard,  that  is,  3  feet  by  3  feet  =  9  feet.  On  all 
framed  and  molded  work,  straight  measure  is  taken  one 
way,  and  the  dimensions  girted  over  the  moldings,  panels, 
etc.,  the  other  way.  In  windows  the  space  occupied  by 
glass  is  not  generally  deducted. 

are  measured  per  lineal  foot. 


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